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This experiment examined the interaction between two imagery functions (Cognitive Specific, CS; and Motivation - General Mastery, MG-M) and two imagery directions (facilitative, debilitative) on self-efficacy and performance in golf putting. Eighty-three participants were randomly assigned to one of 7 conditions: (a) CS + facilitative imagery, (b) CS + debilitative imagery, (c) MG-M + facilitative imagery, (d) MG-M + debilitative imagery, (e) CS imagery only, (f) MG-M imagery only, (g) no imagery (stretching) control group. A 3 (imagery direction) X 3 (imagery function) X 2 (gender) ANCOVA with pretest scores used as the covariate was used. Results showed a main effect for performance; means were higher for the facilitative group compared to the debilitative group. For self-efficacy, there was a significant imagery direction by imagery function by gender interaction. These findings suggest imagery direction and imagery function can affect self-efficacy and performance and that males and females respond differently to imagery interventions.

Bloms, LP, Fitzgerald, JS, Short, MW, and Whitehead, JR. The effects of caffeine on vertical jump height and execution in collegiate athletes. J Strength Cond Res 30(7): 1855-1861, 2016-Caffeine ingestion elicits a variety of physiological effects that may be beneficial to maximal-intensity exercise performance, although its effectiveness and physical mechanism of action enhancing ballistic task performance are unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of caffeine ingestion on vertical jump height and jump execution in Division I collegiate athletes. The study used a single-blind, randomized, crossover design. Athletes (n = 25) consumed either caffeine (5 mg·kg) or placebo. After a 60-minute waiting period, athletes performed 3 squat jumps (SJ) and 3 countermovement jumps (CMJ) while standing on a force platform. Jump height and execution variables were calculated from mechanography data. In comparison with placebo, caffeine increased SJ height (32.8 ± 6.2 vs. 34.5 ± 6.7 cm; p = 0.001) and CMJ height (36.4 ± 6.9 vs. 37.9 ± 7.4 cm; p = 0.001). Peak force (p = 0.032) and average rate of force development (p = 0.037) were increased during the CMJ in the caffeine trail compared with the control. Time to half peak force was the only execution variable improved with caffeine (p = 0.019) during the SJ. It seems that caffeine affects both height and execution of jumping. Our data indicate that the physical mechanism of jump enhancement is increased peak force production or rate of force development during jumping depending on technique. The physical mechanism of jump enhancement suggests that the ergogenic effects of caffeine may transfer to other ballistic tasks involving the lower-body musculature in collegiate athletes.

Imagery in sport has been studied extensively (for a review see Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999). Researchers have described the what, why, where, when, and how athletes use imagery (e.g., Martin et al., 1999; Munroe, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000). Most of the current research in this area has supported Paivio's (1985) conceptualization of imagery into cognitive and motivational functions that operate on specific and general levels. These functions are Cognitive Specific (CS: imaging skills), Cognitive General (CG: imaging strategies), Motivation Specific (MS: imaging goal oriented responses and activities), and Motivational General (MG: affect and arousal). Based on this framework, the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) was developed to assess the frequency with which athletes use these imagery functions. In contrast to Paivio's original model, the SIQ contains 5 subscales as a result of the splitting of the MG function into MG-Mastery (MG-M: imaging being confident, for example) and MG-Arousal (MG-A: imaging physiological and emotional arousal). Researchers have suggested that for imagery to be an effective performance enhancing technique, the imagery content must match the function (cf. Denis, 1985). Martin et al. (1999) also highlighted the importance of using different types of images to achieve different outcomes. In short, the premise behind imagery use

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This study found evidence that 2D:4D was a correlate of performance in an open-skill sport. Female players with lower digit ratios tended to perform better in several aspects of basketball, especially defensively, and were more likely to be starters, suggesting they are the best players on the team in their positions. These results probably reflect the organizational benefits of prenatal testosterone.