Gamification, which can be defined as the use of game-design elements in the workplace, is a relatively new approach to foster work motivation. However, especially gamification elements based on rankings and leader boards create transparency among users, which allows for interpersonal social comparison. This paper gives a possible explanation why and how gamification based on a ranking influences motivation and perceived pressure by taking social comparison processes into account. To this end, we conducted a factorial survey (N = 156) to examine the effects of introducing a game-design element (public leader board) in the workplace. We found that the provision of a ranking increases motivation, perceived pressure and social comparison behavior. Importantly, we found that the motivational and pressuring effects can be largely explained by the extent of individual's social comparison behavior.

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Non-verbal communication cues, e.g. facial expressions, and their surrogates in computermediated communication, emoticons, influence how a message is understood. Based on the four-ear model of communication, we examine in detail how emoticons affect message perception. More specifically, we examine the different effects of three emoticons [:-) :-(;-)] on the four levels that define communication. Using a factorial survey with a treatment control group design (N = 231), our findings suggest that emoticon usage does not influence the understanding of a message at the factual information and appeal levels. However, we show that the usage of happy and ironic emoticons significantly shapes the subtext of a message, namely the relationship and self-revelation level, whereas sad emoticons do not have such an effect. These findings hold practical implications: Most importantly, senders can use happy and ironic emoticons to soften their email messages' illocutionary force at the relationship level and self-revelation level.

Competence, humor and friendliness are good qualities to demonstrate in the workplace. We know that facial expressions provide recipients of a message with information about the senders-conveying that they possess such qualities. However, we only have limited knowledge of whether emoticons, facial expression surrogates in computer-mediated communications, do this in a similar way. Based on the four-ear model of communication and using a factorial survey, we examined how happy emoticons affect recipients' perceptions of senders' competence, humor and friendliness in the context of workplace emails. Our findings suggest that emoticon usage does not influence recipients' perceptions of senders' competence, but does influence the perception of their humor and friendliness. These findings hold practical implications: Senders can use happy emoticons to convey beneficial information at the self-revelation level of a message. Indeed, happy emoticons can make senders seem humorous and friendly to others, and does not make them seem incompetent.

Relative performance feedback (RPF) has often been shown to improve effort and performance in the workplace and educational settings. Yet, many studies also document substantial negative effects of RPF, in particular for low-achievers. We study a novel type of RPF designed to overcome these negative effects of RPF on low-achievers by scoring individual performance improvements. With a sample of about 400 children, we conduct a class-wise randomized-controlled trial in regular teaching lessons in primary schools. We demonstrate that this type of RPF significantly increases motivation, effort, and performance in math for low-achieving children, without hurting high-achieving children. Among low-achievers, those receiving more points and moving up in the ranking improved strongest on motivation and math performance. In addition, we document substantial gender differences in response to this type of RPF: improvements in motivation and learning are much stronger for girls. We argue that using this novel type of RPF could potentially reduce inequalities, especially in educational settings.