No abstract

Scholarship in sociology and economics has long explored the gender wage gap. Recent research suggests that these inequalities are indicative of important differences not only between men and women, but among women and men, ref lecting rising levels of income inequality among workers in the postindustrial era. We argue that the most interesting debates in the gender wage gap -those exploring differences among subgroups by class, race, and/or parenthood status (such as the motherhood wage penalty), as well as those considering differences across countries -can bring new insights to the study of wage inequality, as well as to understandings of what drives gendered wage inequality.

Objective: This article aims to determine whether the wage penalty for motherhood changed in the United States between 1986 and 2014 and to assess the relative impact of education and experience on the penalty over time. Background: Mothers earn less than childless women. Although mothers' educational levels and labor market experience have increased over time, most studies do not analyze the motherhood penalty over time. Method: This article uses ordinary least squares and fixed effects regressions to estimate the motherhood penalty in three time periods (1986-1995, 1996-2004, and 2006-2014) and compares the penalty across time periods. The data used in the analysis are from the U.S. Panel Study of Income Dynamics, one of the only nationally representative data sets that contains a measure of actual labor market experience. Results: The motherhood penalty remains quite stable over time and may have worsened for mothers with one child. The gross gap in pay

This paper describes the job market experiences of new PhD economists, 2007-10. Using information from PhD programs' job candidate websites and original surveys, the authors present information about job candidates' characteristics, preferences and expectations; how job candidates fared at each stage of the market; and predictors of outcomes at each stage. Some information presented in this paper updates findings of prior studies. However, design features of the data used in this paper may result in more generalizable findings. This paper is unique in comparing pre-market expectations and preferences with post-market outcomes on the new PhD job market. It shows that outcomes tend to align with pre-market preferences, and candidates' expectations are somewhat predictive of their outcomes. Several analyses also shed light on sub-group differences.

Credible findings from well-crafted research studies are essential in assessing the impact of child work on children's health. Researchers, however, encounter significant challenges in defining the relevant group of workers for a study and identifying an appropriate comparison group. This article describes some of those challenges and explains how choices about study and comparison groups can lead to biased research results. When selecting study groups, researchers should be aware that the impact of work on health may depend on the type and intensity of the work, and on the context in which it occurs. They should avoid drawing conclusions about the health effects of particular work situations from studies of very heterogeneous groups of workers and should not overgeneralize from studies of more homogenous groups. When choosing comparison groups, researchers should select children whose health outcomes are likely to be comparable to the outcomes working children would experience if they did not work. In particular, researchers should attempt to find children who are similar to the workers of interest on relevant non-work characteristics, including socioeconomic status and levels of parental education. In addition, they should consider the extent to which healthier children are more likely to select into the labor force as a result of decisions by parents or employers, or due to their own greater fitness. Ideally, studies of the health effects of child work should use multiple comparison groups, including children who work in relatively safe, non-strenuous occupations.