Motherhood Penalties in the U.S., 1986–2014

Jee, Eunjung; Misra, Joya; Murray‐Close, Marta

doi:10.1111/jomf.12543

Cited by 42 publications

(34 citation statements)

References 35 publications

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“…Using the NLSY to follow a cohort of women from 1968 to 2003, Kahn, Garcia‐Manglano, and Bianchi () found the penalty was largest when women were young. Examining changes in the motherhood penalty from 1980 to 2014, Glauber () found that the penalty was eliminated for high‐earning, but not low‐earning, women (see also Buchmann & McDaniel, ; but see Jee, Misra, & Murray‐Close, ).…”

Section: Paid Work and Familiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Work and Family in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

Perry‐Jenkins

Gerstel

2020

J of Marriage and Family

169

123

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In the second decade of the 21st century, research on work and family from multiple disciplines flourished. The goal of this review is to capture the scope of this work–family literature and to highlight both the valuable advances and problematic omissions. In synthesizing this literature, the authors show that numerous scholars conducted studies and refined theories that addressed gender, but far fewer examined racial and class heterogeneity. They argue that examining heterogeneity changes the understanding of work–family relations. After briefly introducing the broad social, political, and economic context in which diverse work–family connections developed, this review uses this context to address the following three main themes, each with subtopics: (a) unpaid work including housework, parenting as work, and kin work; (b) paid work including work timing and hours, money (i.e., motherhood penalty, fatherhood bonus, marriage bonus, kin care penalty), relationships (i.e., coworkers, supervisors), and work experiences (i.e., complexity, autonomy, urgency); and (c) work–family policies (i.e., scheduling and child care). Given the breadth of the work–family literature, this review is not exhaustive but, rather, the authors synthesize key findings on each topic followed by a critique, especially with regard to the analyses of differences and inequalities around gender, race, ethnicity, and social class.

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Section: Paid Work and Familiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Work and Family in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

Perry‐Jenkins

Gerstel

2020

J of Marriage and Family

169

123

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…Parenthood exac er bates gen der inequal ity in the labor mar ket (England 2005). Whereas men's wages remain sta ble or increase when they become fathers (Killewald 2013;Lundberg and Rose 2002), women expe ri ence a sub stan tial moth er hood wage penalty (Avellar and Smock 2003;Jee et al 2019). Some of the moth er hood wage pen alty can be explained by dif fer ences in work expe ri ence, part-time hours, and occu pa tional changes (Budig and England 2001), but a large resid ual pen alty per sists in research adjusting for these fac tors and selec tion into moth er hood (Waldfogel 1997).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Motherhood Penalty in Context: Assessing Discrimination in a Polarized Labor Market

Ishizuka

2021

Demography

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Prior research provides important insights into employer discrimination against mothers but has focused exclusively on college-educated mothers in professional and managerial occupations. As a result, we lack evidence about whether less-educated mothers navigating the low-wage labor market experience similar disadvantages and whether the mechanisms underlying discrimination vary across contexts. These gaps are important because more- and less-educated mothers increasingly possess distinct resources and face unique demands both at home and at work, which may impact employer perceptions of conflicts between motherhood and job performance. This study reports results from an original field experiment in which 2,210 fictitious applications were submitted to low-wage service and professional/managerial job openings across six U.S. cities, experimentally manipulating signals of motherhood status. Findings provide causal evidence that employers in both contexts discriminate against mothers relative to equally qualified childless women. However, within labor market segments, distinct job demands listed in job advertisements are associated with stronger discrimination: time pressure, collaboration, and travel in professional/managerial jobs and schedule instability in low-wage service jobs. These findings have important implications for our understanding of the mechanisms underlying mothers' disadvantages in an increasingly polarized labor market.

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“…In addition to these changes in women’s employment, shifts in the motherhood wage penalty and fatherhood wage premium also have the potential to contribute to increases in spouses’ economic homogamy, although evidence about change over time is relatively weak. Some studies showed that motherhood wage penalties—which capture effects of work interruptions, job changes, and discrimination—have declined over the past decades ( Glauber 2008 ; Pal and Waldfogel 2016 ), but others found no substantial change ( Jee et al 2019 ). Studies have also found little change in fatherhood wage bonuses ( Glauber 2018 ; Lundberg and Rose 2000 ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Changes in Couples' Earnings Following Parenthood and Trends in Family Earnings Inequality

2021

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The growing economic similarity of spouses has contributed to rising income inequality across households. Explanations have typically centered on assortative mating, but recent work has argued that changes in women's employment and spouses' division of paid work have played a more important role. We expand this work to consider the critical turning point of parenthood in shaping couples' division of employment and earnings. Drawing on three U.S. nationally representative surveys, we examine the role of parenthood in spouses' earnings correlations between 1968 and 2015. We examine the extent to which changes in spouses' earnings correlations are due to (1) changes upon entry into marriage (assortative mating), (2) changes between marriage and parenthood, (3) changes following parenthood, and (4) changes in women's employment. Our findings show that increases in the correlation between spouses' earnings prior to 1990 came largely from changes between marriage and first birth, but increases after 1990 came almost entirely from changes following parenthood. In both instances, changes in women's employment are key to increasing earnings correlations. Changes in assortative mating played little role in either period. An assessment of the aggregate-level implications points to the growing significance of earnings similarity after parenthood for rising income inequality across families.

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Motherhood Penalties in the U.S., 1986–2014

Cited by 42 publications

References 35 publications

Work and Family in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

Work and Family in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

The Motherhood Penalty in Context: Assessing Discrimination in a Polarized Labor Market

Changes in Couples' Earnings Following Parenthood and Trends in Family Earnings Inequality

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