On 14th November 2016, the northeastern South Island of New Zealand was struck by a major Mw 7.8 earthquake. Field observations, in conjunction with InSAR, GPS, and seismology reveal this to be one of the most complex earthquakes ever recorded. The rupture propagated northward for more than 170 km along both mapped and unmapped faults, before continuing offshore at its northeastern extent. Geodetic and field observations reveal surface ruptures along at least 12 major faults, including possible slip along the southern Hikurangi subduction interface, extensive uplift along much of the coastline and widespread anelastic deformation including the ~8 m uplift of a fault-bounded block. This complex earthquake defies many conventional assumptions about the degree to which earthquake ruptures are controlled by fault segmentation, and should motivate re-thinking of these issues in seismic hazard models.One Sentence Summary: Major earthquake rips through evolving fault zone, defying conventional wisdom regarding the degree of fault segmentation during earthquake ruptures.

A team of earthquake geologists, seismologists, and engineering seismologists has collectively produced an update of the national probabilistic seismic hazard (PSH) model for New Zealand (National Seismic Hazard Model, or NSHM). The new NSHM supersedes the earlier NSHM published in 2002 and used as the hazard basis for the New Zealand Loadings Standard and numerous other end-user applications. The new NSHM incorporates a fault source model that has been updated with over 200 new onshore and offshore fault sources and utilizes new New Zealand-based and international scaling relationships for the parameterization of the faults. The distributed seismicity model has also been updated to include post-1997 seismicity data, a new seismicity regionalization, and improved methodology for calculation of the seismicity parameters. Probabilistic seismic hazard maps produced from the new NSHM show a similar pattern of hazard to the earlier model at the national scale, but there are some significant reductions and increases in hazard at the regional scale. The national-scale differences between the new and earlier NSHM appear less than those seen between much earlier national models, indicating that some degree of consistency has been achieved in the national-scale pattern of hazard estimates, at least for return periods of 475 years and greater.Online Material: Table of fault source parameters for the 2010 national seismichazard model.

S U M M A R YWe examine whether the shape of the magnitude-frequency distribution for strike-slip faults is described by the Gutenburg-Richter relationship (log n = a -b M ) or by the characteristic earthquake model, by analysing a data set of faults from California, Mexico, Japan, New Zealand, China and Turkey. For faults within regional seismic networks, curves of the form log n y r p l = a -bM, where n yr-' is the number of events per year equal to magnitude M , are fit to the instrumental record of seismicity, and geological data are used to estimate independently the size and recurrence rate of the largest expected earthquakes that would rupture the total length of the fault. Extrapolation of instrumentally derived curves to larger magnitudes agrees with geological estimates of the recurrence rate of the largest earthquakes for only four of the 22 faults if uncertainties in curve slope are considered, and significantly underestimates the geological recurrence rates in the remaining cases. Also, if we predict the seismicity of the faults as a function of fault length and slip rate, and the predicted seismicity is distributed in accord with the Gutenburg-Richter relationship, we find the predicted recurrence rate to be greater than the observed recurrence rates of smaller earthquakes along most faults. If individual fault zones satisfy the Gutenburg-Richter relationship over the long term, our observations imply that, during the recurrence interval of the largest expected earthquakes, the recurrence of lesser-sized events is not steady but, rather, strongly clustered in time. However, if the instrumental records provide an estimate of the long-term rate of small to moderate earthquakes along the faults, our observations imply that the faults generally exhibit a magnitude-frequency distribution consistent with the characteristic earthquake model. Also, we observe that the geometrical complexity of strike-slip faults is a decreasing function of cumulative strike-slip offset. The four faults we observe to be consistent with the GutenburgRichter relationship are among those characterized by the least amount of cumulative slip and greatest fault-trace complexity. We therefore suggest that the ratio of the recurrence rate of small to large earthquakes along a fault zone may decrease as slip accumulates and the fault becomes smoother.

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Geological observations require that episodic slip on the Alpine fault averages to a long-term displacement rate of 2-3 cm/yr. Patterns of seismicity and geodetic strain suggest the fault is locked above a depth of 6-12 km and will probably fail during an earthquake. High pore-fluid pressures in the deeper fault zone are inferred from low seismic P-wave velocity and high electrical conductivity in central South Island, and may limit the seismogenic zone east of the Alpine fault to depths as shallow as 6 km. A simplified dynamic rupture model suggests an episode of aseismic slip at depth may not inhibit later propagation of a fully developed earthquake rupture. Although it is difficult to resolve surface displacement during an ancient earthquake from displacements that occurred in the months and years that immediately surround the event, sufficient data exist to evaluate the extent of the last three Alpine fault ruptures: the 1717 AD event is inferred to have ruptured a 300-500 km length of fault; the 1620 AD event ruptured 200-300 km; and the 1430 AD event ruptured 350-600 km. The geologically estimated moment magnitudes are 7.9 ± 0.3, 7.6 ± 0.3, and 7.9 ± 0.4, respectively. We conclude that large earthquakes (M w >7) on the Alpine fault will almost certainly occur in future, and it is realistic to expect some great earthquakes (M w ≥8).

Active fault traces are a surface expression of permanent deformation that accommodates the motion within and between adjacent tectonic plates. We present an updated national-scale model for active faulting in New Zealand, summarize the current understanding of fault kinematics in 15 tectonic domains, and undertake some brief kinematic analysis including comparison of fault slip rates with GPS velocities. The model contains 635 simplified faults with tabulated parameters of their attitude (dip and dip-direction) and kinematics (sense of movement and rake of slip vector), net slip rate and a quality code. Fault density and slip rates are, as expected, highest along the central plate boundary zone, but the model is undoubtedly incomplete, particularly in rapidly eroding mountainous areas and submarine areas with limited data. The active fault data presented are of value to a range of kinematic, active fault and seismic hazard studies.

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