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Though the broader literature suggests that women may be more vulnerable to the effects of trauma exposure, most available studies on combat trauma have relied on samples in which women's combat exposure is limited and analyses that do not directly address gender differences in associations between combat exposure and postdeployment mental health. Female service members' increased exposure to combat in Afghanistan and Iraq provides a unique opportunity to evaluate gender differences in different dimensions of combatrelated stress and associated consequence for postdeployment mental health. The current study addressed these research questions in a representative sample of female and male U.S. veterans who had returned from deployment to Afghanistan or Iraq within the previous year. As expected, women reported slightly less exposure than men to most combat-related stressors, but higher exposure to other stressors (i.e., prior life stress, deployment sexual harassment). No gender differences were observed in reports of perceived threat in the war zone. Though it was hypothesized that combat-related stressors would demonstrate stronger negative associations with postdeployment mental health for women, only one of 16 stressor ϫ gender interactions achieved statistical significance and an evaluation of the clinical significance of these interactions revealed that effects were trivial. Results suggest that female Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom service members may be as resilient to combat-related stress as men. Future research is needed to evaluate gender differences in the longer-term effects of combat exposure.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 120(4) of Journal of Abnormal Psychology (see record 2011-19996-001). In the article there was an error in the affiliation bylines for Rani Elwy and Susan Eisen. Their affiliations should have been listed as Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Health Policy and Management, Boston University School of Public Health.] Prior research on risk factors for posttraumatic stress symptomatology (PTSS) in war-exposed Veterans has revealed both direct and indirect mechanisms of risk that span predeployment, deployment, and postdeployment timeframes. The aims of the present study were to identify the mechanisms through which previously documented risk factors contribute to PTSS in a national sample of 579 female and male Veterans deployed to Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) or to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), as well as to examine the extent to which results mirror associations observed among Vietnam Veterans (King, King, Foy, Keane, & Fairbank, 1999). Consistent with conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989, 2001), findings indicated that PTSS is accounted for by multiple chains of risk, many originating in predeployment experiences that place Veterans at risk for additional stress exposure, and foretell difficulty accessing resources in the face of subsequent stressors. Importantly, the majority of previously documented mechanisms were replicated in this study, suggesting key pathways through which risk factors may contribute to PTSS across different Veteran populations. Results also revealed a number of novel risk mechanisms for OEF/OIF female Veterans, particularly with respect to the role of deployment family relationships in risk for PTSS.

Continuing identification of veterans at risk for mental health and substance use problems is important for evidence-based interventions intended to increase resilience and enhance treatment.

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