Aim This paper presents a spatial classification of the environmental and ecological diversity of the cerrado region of Brazil, as well as an appraisal of the levels of conversion to agriculture and of the extent of land protection.Location The cerrado region of Brazil, located in the centre of Brazil, occupies c. 2.5 million square kilometres. Our study area represents roughly 85% of the total. This ecologically heterogeneous region is dominated by savannas, but also contains several types of forests and xerophytic communities that often form mosaics with the savannas. Its high biodiversity is seriously threatened by the accelerated process of conversion to agriculture and a deficiency in the extent and the representativeness of protected areas.Methods We selected 124 land systems from a previous study of the lowlands of South America. The maps were digitized and 41 parameters, where environmental information was available, were used to build a matrix. A cluster analysis was then performed and the results used to classify the land systems into units at two scales. The larger units, characterized by the dominant landform and vegetation, were considered as landscape units. Within each of these, smaller units called ecological units were defined by the physiognomy and phenology of the dominant vegetation, topography and drainage. Using GIS, we mapped the resulting ecological units and incorporated the information on land use from the municipal agricultural census of 1996. In addition, data on the extent of protected land units was used to assess the status of land protection in each ecological unit.Results Five landscape units and 15 ecological units were identified, mapped and explained. These units were not continuous but were represented by disjunct patches located in different parts of the study region. Brief descriptions are given including the geographical locations and dominant ecological features. They also include the extent of land conversion to agriculture (1996 census figures) in each of the various patches as well as the number and area of units of conservation. Main conclusionsThe high level of land conversion to agriculture is a major threat to the conservation of the remarkable biodiversity of the cerrado region. This, together with the poor status of land protection, represents the major environmental problem facing this region. However, the fact that areas with similar general ecological conditions have a disjunct distribution is important for conservation purposes, even though the details of floristic similarities and biogeographic influences have still to be worked out. Our detailed spatial classification has made this disjunction clearly apparent and has allowed us to map ecologically similar areas accurately. This allows the evaluation of the status of these areas in terms of land use and land protection and may be used in the design of conservation strategies.

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Changes were recorded in population and species density of a 3—ha permanent Trachypogon savanna plot, protected against fire and cattle grazing for 16 yr (1961—1977). This savanna is a grassland (mainly Trachypogon species), with scattered trees and groves. Under protection it is gradually changing into a denser arboreal community; trees in the grassland and in the groves increased 14.6— and 3.7—fold, respectively. In places, ironstone outcrops limit woody plant invasion and prevent the whole area from developing into a savanna woodland. Experimental explosions (using dynamite) in the ironstone outcrop led to the growth of trees in soil pockets formed in the artificial fissures.

Aim We tested the hypothesis that exclusion from ®re and cattle is responsible for the increase in tree cover in open savanna vegetation.Location Four plots in open savanna vegetation from the Calabozo region in central Venezuela were studied. Plot A was located in a Biological Station (EBL) that was excluded from ®re and cattle between 1961 and 1991, with only two burning events in 1964 and 1968. The other plots (B, C, D) were located within 2 km distance from A, in neighbouring farms with soils similar to those in A but under various regimes of land use and ®re frequency.Methods We measured the cover of isolated trees, small tree groups and groves of each plot in 1960 and 1977 using geographic information system (GIS) and digitalized aerial photographs. Additionally, the plots were located in the ®eld and the open grassland was sampled in 1995 for species composition and density of stems above 20 cm height. Information on land use was obtained surveying people at the farms.Results There was an increase in the woody component of all plots during the 17-year interval (1960±1977). Total woody cover in the four plots as a whole increased from 4.5% to 17.9%. All three components measured, groves, tree groups and isolated trees, increased despite differences in land use and ®re frequency between plots. Contrary to our expectations, the ®eld survey performed in 1995 showed that ®re-sensitive species were abundant in the open savanna in plots B, C and D, which were not excluded. Plot B, with the most intense agricultural use showed the highest rate of woody increase, and plot C, under extensive cattle ranching, was second. The results also showed that woody cover increased by aggregation from single trees and small tree groups into groves. As a consequence of these changes, savanna physiognomy changed from open to dense savanna parkland with a woody cover reaching over 25% in one of the four plots.Conclusions The results agree with other reported increases in woody cover in savannas under exclusion or with annual ®res during the same time period in Africa (Dauget & Menaut, 1992). Our results support evidence from previous studies showing that ®re and grazing are only part of a complex system of interacting factors affecting the structure of savanna communities.

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The tropical high Andes experience greater daily temperature oscillations compared to seasonal ones as well as a high frequency of night frost occurrence year round. Survival of organisms, under such environmental conditions, has been determined by selective forces which have evolved into adaptations including avoidance or tolerance to freezing. These adaptations have been studied in diVerent species of trees, shrubs and perennial herbs in páramo ecosystems, while they have not been considered in grasses, an important family of the páramo. In order to understand survival of Poaceae, resistance mechanisms were determined. The study was performed along an altitudinal gradient (2,500-4,200 m a.s.l.) in the páramo. Supercooling capacity and frost injury temperature were determined in nine species in order to establish cold resistance mechanisms. Grasses registered a very low supercooling capacity along the altitudinal gradient, with ice formation between ¡6 and ¡3°C. On the other hand, frost injury temperature oscillated between ¡18 and ¡7°C. Our results suggest that grasses exhibit freezing tolerance as their main cold resistance mechanism. Since grasses grow at ground level, where greatest heat loss takes place, tolerance may be related to this life form as reported for other small life forms.

In Venezuelan paramos grasses, after Asteraceae, are the second family in numerical importance. We studied their distribution in an altitudinal gradient located in Venezuela, Sierra de La Culata, between 2,500 and 4,200 m of altitude. Twenty one 32 m parallel line transects every 50 m were placed along the gradient, perpendicular to the main slope. Each line was divided into contiguous 50 x 50 cm sampling units. Grass species occurrence inside each sample unit was considered to determine their frequency in each line or altitude. The peak and altitudinal amplitude was determined through the weighted averaging method. A total of 47 grass species were found along the gradient. Agrostis was the best-represented genus in the gradient. Considering the distribution ranges, we assume that there are different biotic and abiotic processes determining the distribution patterns. The species occurring at the highest altitudes were temperate elements, while those in the lowest areas were tropical and subtropical elements. Seven species in the gradient are endemic to the Venezuelan paramos. Grass distribution patterns in the paramo may be related to phytogeographical origin. In order to better understand the plant altitudinal distribution pattern is necessary to consider the plant responses to low temperatures, high incoming radiation, water stress and slope aspect.Key words: altitudinal patterns, phytogeography, Poaceae, South American Andes, tropical high mountain. RESUMENEn los páramos de Venezuela las gramíneas son la segunda familia numéricamente más importante, después de las Asteraceae. Nosotros estudiamos su distribución en un gradiente altitudinal ubicado en Venezuela, Sierra de La Culata, entre 2.500 y 4.200 m de altitud. Para esto colocamos 21 transectas de 32 m de longitud a lo largo del gradiente, ubicados de manera perpendicular a la pendiente, cada 50 m en altitud. Cada transecta estaba dividida en unidades de muestreo contiguas de 50 x 50 cm. Para estimar la frecuencia de las especies en cada transecta o altitud, consideramos la ocurrencia de las mismas dentro de cada una de las unidades de muestreo. Determinamos el óptimo y la amplitud altitudinal a través del método de los promedios ponderados. Encontramos un total de 47 especies de gramíneas distribuidas a lo largo del gradiente. Agrostis fue el género mejor representado. Teniendo en cuenta los intervalos de distribución, podemos asumir que hay diferentes procesos que determinan la distribución de las especies, pudiendo estos ser de origen biótico y abiótico. Las especies que ocurren a mayores altitudes correspondieron a elementos templados, mientras que aquellos que ocurren en áreas de menor altitud fueron elementos tropicales y subtropicales. Siete de las especies del gradiente son endémicas a los páramos de Venezuela. Los patrones de distribución de las gramíneas en el páramo, parecen estar relacionados con el origen fitogeográfico. Para entender mejor los determinantes de los patrones de distribución altitudinal es necesario considerar las relaci...

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