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We estimate the impact of regulatory heterogeneity on agri‐food trade using a gravity analysis that relies on detailed data on non‐tariff measures (NTMs) collected by the NTM‐Impact project. The data cover a broad range of import requirements for agricultural and food products for the EU and nine of its major trade partners. We find that trade is significantly reduced when importing countries have stricter maximum residue limits (MRLs) for plant products than exporting countries. For most other measures, due to their qualitative nature, we were unable to infer whether the importer has stricter standards relative to the exporter, and we do not find a robust relationship between these measures and trade. Our findings suggest that, at least for some import standards, harmonising regulations will increase trade. We also conclude that tariff reductions remain an effective means to increase trade even when NTMs abound.

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Contamination of African staple foods is a major issue for human and animal health, nutrition, and trade. This review aimed to collect and synthesize the available evidence on geographical spread, scale of contamination, disease burden, economic impact, and mitigation measures for aflatoxins in Africa by way of a systematic literature review. This knowledge can enhance management strategies for the major challenges to combat aflatoxins. The search was conducted by applying a predefined search strategy, using bibliographic databases and websites, covering the period 2010 to 2018. Results showed that maize, peanuts, and animal feeds were the most studied commodities. For maize, all studies indicated mean AFB1 to exceed the European Union legal limit. From studies on contamination levels and biomarkers, it is clear that overall exposure is high, leading to a substantial increase in long‐term disease burden. In addition, concentrations in food occasionally can reach very high levels, causing acute aflatoxicoses. The trade‐related impact of aflatoxin contamination was mainly evaluated from the standpoint of aflatoxin regulation affecting products imported from Africa. There was a limited number of studies on health‐related economic impacts, pointing out a gap in peer‐reviewed literature. A number of mitigation measures have been developed, but proof of cost‐effectiveness or even costs alone of the practices is often lacking. We recommend more emphasis to be put in peer‐reviewed studies on evidence‐based cost‐effective mitigation strategies for aflatoxins, on the scale and spread of the problem and its impacts on public health and economics for use in evidence‐based policies.

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