Background Fine root production is one of the least well understood components of the carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystems. Minirhizotrons allow accurate and non-destructive sampling of fine root production. Small and large scale studies across a range of ecosystems are needed to have baseline data on fine root production and further assess the impact of global change upon it; however, the expense and the low adaptability of minirhizotrons prevent such data collection, in worldwide distributed sampling schemes, in low-income countries and in some ecosystems (e.g. tropical forested wetlands). Results We present EnRoot, a narrow minirhizotron of 25 mm diameter, that is partially 3D printable. EnRoot is inexpensive (€150), easy to construct (no prior knowledge required) and adapted to a range of ecosystems including tropical forested wetlands (e.g. mangroves, peatlands). We tested EnRoot’s accuracy and precision for measuring fine root length and diameter, and it yielded Lin’s concordance correlation coefficient values of 0.95 for root diameter and 0.92 for length. As a proof of concept, we tested EnRoot in a mesocosm study, and in the field in a tropical mangrove. EnRoot proved its capacity to capture the development of roots of a legume ( Medicago sativa ) and a mangrove species (seedlings of Rhizophora mangle ) in laboratory mesocosms. EnRoot’s field installation was possible in the root-dense tropical mangrove because its narrow diameter allowed it to be installed between larger roots and because it is fully waterproof. EnRoot compares favourably with commercial minirhizotrons, and can image roots as small as 56 µm. Conclusion EnRoot removes barriers to the extensive use of minirhizotrons by being low-cost, easy to construct and adapted to a wide range of ecosystem. It opens the doors to worldwide distributed minirhizotron studies across an extended range of ecosystems with the potential to fill knowledge gaps surrounding fine root production.

Mangroves are among the world's most carbon‐dense ecosystems, but they are threatened by rapid climate change and rising sea levels. The accumulation and decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) are closely tied to mangroves' carbon sink functions and resistance to rising sea levels. However, few studies have investigated the response of mangrove SOM dynamics to likely future environmental conditions. We quantified how mangrove SOM decay is affected by predicted global warming (+4°C), sea level changes (simulated by altering of the inundation duration to 0, 2, and 6 hr/day), and their interaction. Whilst changes in inundation duration between 2 and 6 hr/day did not affect SOM decay, the treatment without inundation led to a 60% increase. A warming of 4°C caused SOM decay to increase by 21%, but longer inundation moderated this temperature‐driven increase. Our results indicate that (a) sea level rise is unlikely to decrease the SOM decay rate, suggesting that previous mangrove elevation gain, which has allowed mangroves to persist in areas of sea level rise, might result from changes in root production and/or mineral sedimentation; (b) sea level fall events, predicted to double in frequency and area, will cause periods of intensified SOM decay; (c) changing tidal regimes in mangroves due to sea level rise might attenuate increases in SOM decay caused by global warming. Our results have important implications for forecasting mangrove carbon dynamics and the persistence of mangroves and other coastal wetlands under future scenarios of climate change.

Vegetation processes are fundamentally limited by nutrient and water availability, the uptake of which is mediated by plant roots in terrestrial ecosystems. While tropical forests play a central role in global water, carbon, and nutrient cycling, we know very little about tradeoffs and synergies in root traits that respond to resource scarcity. Tropical trees face a unique set of resource limitations, with rock-derived nutrients and moisture seasonality governing many ecosystem functions, and nutrient versus water availability often separated spatially and temporally. Root traits that characterize biomass, depth distributions, production and phenology, morphology, physiology, chemistry, and symbiotic relationships can be predictive of plants’ capacities to access and acquire nutrients and water, with links to aboveground processes like transpiration, wood productivity, and leaf phenology. In this review, we identify an emerging trend in the literature that tropical fine root biomass and production in surface soils are greatest in infertile or sufficiently moist soils. We also identify interesting paradoxes in tropical forest root responses to changing resources that merit further exploration. For example, specific root length, which typically increases under resource scarcity to expand the volume of soil explored, instead can increase with greater base cation availability, both across natural tropical forest gradients and in fertilization experiments. Also, nutrient additions, rather than reducing mycorrhizal colonization of fine roots as might be expected, increased colonization rates under scenarios of water scarcity in some forests. Efforts to include fine root traits and functions in vegetation models have grown more sophisticated over time, yet there is a disconnect between the emphasis in models characterizing nutrient and water uptake rates and carbon costs versus the emphasis in field experiments on measuring root biomass, production, and morphology in response to changes in resource availability. Closer integration of field and modeling efforts could connect mechanistic investigation of fine-root dynamics to ecosystem-scale understanding of nutrient and water cycling, allowing us to better predict tropical forest-climate feedbacks.

Mangroves are among the world's most carbon-dense ecosystems, but have suffered extensive deforestation, prompting reforestation projects. The effects of mangrove reforestation on belowground carbon dynamics are poorly understood. In particular, we do not know how fine root production develops following mangrove reforestation, despite fine root production being a major carbon sink and an important control of mangrove soil accretion.Using minirhizotrons, we investigated fine root production and its depth variation along a chronosequence of mature Vietnamese mangroves.Our results showed that fine root production decreases strongly with stand age in the uppermost 32 cm of our soil profiles. In younger mangrove stands, fine root production declines with depth, possibly due to a vertical gradient in soil nutrient availability; while root production in the oldest stand is low at all depths and exhibits no clear vertical pattern. A major fraction of fine root production occurs deeper than 30 cm, depths that are commonly omitted from calculations of mangrove carbon budgets.Younger mangroves may accrue shallow soil organic matter faster than older mangroves. Therefore, root productivity and forest stand age should be accounted for when forecasting mangrove carbon budgets and resistance to sea-level rise.

Mangroves are among the most carbon-dense ecosystems worldwide. Most of the carbon in mangroves is found belowground, and root production might be an important control of carbon accumulation, but has been rarely quantified and understood at the global scale. Here, we determined the global mangrove root production rate and its controls using a systematic review and a recently formalised, spatially explicit mangrove typology framework based on geomorphological settings. We found that global mangrove root production averaged ~770 ± 202 g of dry biomass m −2 year −1 globally, which is much higher than previously reported and close to the root production of the most productive tropical forests. Geomorphological settings exerted marked control over root production together with air temperature and precipitation (r 2 ≈ 30%, p < .001). Our review shows that individual global changes (e.g. warming, eutrophication, drought) have antagonist effects on root production, but they have rarely been studied in combination. Based on this newly established root production rate, root-derived carbon might account for most of the total carbon buried in mangroves, and 19 Tg C lost in mangroves each year (e.g. as CO 2 ). Inclusion of root production measurements in understudied geomorphological settings (i.e. deltas), regions (Indonesia, South America and Africa) and soil depth (>40 cm), as well as the creation of a mangrove root trait database will push forward our understanding of the global mangrove carbon cycle for now and the future. Overall, this review presents a comprehensive analysis of root production in mangroves, and highlights the central role of root production in the global mangrove carbon budget.

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Many mangrove ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, are closely linked to mangrove soil water content, which in turn is thought to depend on animal burrow density and the properties of the sediment in which the burrows are constructed. We measured the water content in the sediment matrix between crab burrows across 26 plots in a typical, fine‐grained (clay), mangrove soil in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. We found that the water content of the sediment matrix remained more or less constant throughout the tidal cycle, and was independent of burrow density. Our results suggest that there is little exchange of water between the burrows and the associated sediment matrix and that burrows act as an independent pipe network transporting water through the mangrove soil. To check and extend our findings, we used a numerical groundwater model to simulate an idealized burrow in a range of sediment types. The model results confirmed that fine‐grained mangrove sediments do not drain readily into adjacent animal burrows because of their very low permeability. Our results have important implications for understanding and forecasting mangrove carbon dynamics with sea level rise.

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