The small hydrophobic (SH) gene of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a major cause of infant hospitalization, encodes a viroporin of unknown function. SH gene knockout virus (RSV ⌬SH) is partially attenuated in vivo, but not in vitro, suggesting that the SH protein may have an immunomodulatory role. RSV ⌬SH has been tested as a live attenuated vaccine in humans and cattle, and here we demonstrate that it protected against viral rechallenge in mice. We compared the immune response to infection with RSV wild type and RSV ⌬SH in vivo using BALB/c mice and in vitro using epithelial cells, neutrophils, and macrophages. Strikingly, the interleukin-1 (IL-1) response to RSV ⌬SH infection was greater than to wild-type RSV, in spite of a decreased viral load, and when IL-1 was blocked in vivo, the viral load returned to wild-type levels. A significantly greater IL-1 response to RSV ⌬SH was also detected in vitro, with higher-magnitude responses in neutrophils and macrophages than in epithelial cells. Depleting macrophages (with clodronate liposome) and neutrophils (with anti-Ly6G/1A8) demonstrated the contribution of these cells to the IL-1 response in vivo, the first demonstration of neutrophilic IL-1 production in response to viral lung infection. In this study, we describe an increased IL-1 response to RSV ⌬SH, which may explain the attenuation in vivo and supports targeting the SH gene in live attenuated vaccines.
IMPORTANCE
There is a pressing need for a vaccine for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). A number of live attenuated RSV vaccine strains have been developed in which the small hydrophobic (SH) gene has been deleted, even though the function of the SH protein is unknown. The structure of the SH protein has recently been solved, showing it is a pore-forming protein (viroporin). Here, we demonstrate that the IL-1 response to RSV ⌬SH is greater in spite of a lower viral load, which contributes to the attenuation in vivo. This potentially suggests a novel method by which viruses can evade the host response. As all Pneumovirinae and some Paramyxovirinae carry similar SH genes, this new understanding may also enable the development of live attenuated vaccines for both RSV and other members of the Paramyxoviridae. R espiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most significant cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infants for which there is no vaccine (1). Recent advances in the understanding of the infant immune response to vaccination suggest that a live attenuated vaccine given in infancy may be the most effective approach to prevent RSV infection (2), potentially in combination with maternal immunization using recombinant F protein (3). This is supported by the successful introduction of live attenuated influenza vaccine to the childhood vaccination schedule (4) in conjunction with immunization during pregnancy with the trivalent inactivated vaccine (5). One issue with live attenuated RSV vaccines has been balancing immunogenicity and safety (6). Two approaches are used to develop live attenuated v...
Making the most of “big data” is one of the core challenges of current biology. There is a large array of heterogeneous data sets of host gene responses to infection, but these data sets do not inform us about gene function and require specialized skill sets and training for their utilization. Here we describe an approach that combines and simplifies these data sets, distilling this information into a single list of genes commonly upregulated in response to infection with RSV as a model pathogen. Many of the genes on the list have unknown functions in RSV disease. We validated the gene list with new clinical, in vitro, and in vivo data. This approach allows the rapid selection of genes of interest for further, more-detailed studies, thus reducing time and costs. Furthermore, the approach is simple to use and widely applicable to a range of diseases.
Serum MDA level and concentration of superoxide anion in leukocytes were measured in patients with acute hepatitis B and C at the peak of the disease, during regression, and during early convalescence. The concentration of active oxygen forms in leukocytes was maximum at the peak of the disease and decreased before discharge from the hospital.
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