Motivation is a proximal determinant of behaviour, and increasing motivation is central to most health behaviour change interventions. This systematic review and meta-analysis sought to identify features of physical activity interventions associated with favourable changes in three prominent motivational constructs: intention, stage of change and autonomous motivation. A systematic literature search identified 89 intervention studies (k = 200; N = 19,212) which assessed changes in these motivational constructs for physical activity. Intervention descriptions were coded for potential moderators, including behaviour change techniques (BCTs), modes of delivery and theory use. Random effects comparative subgroup analyses identified 18 BCTs and 10 modes of delivery independently associated with changes in at least one motivational outcome (effect sizes ranged from d = 0.12 to d = 0.74). Interventions delivered face-to-face or in gym settings, or which included the BCTs 'behavioural goal setting', 'self-monitoring (behaviour)' or 'behavioural practice/rehearsal', or which combined self-monitoring (behaviour) with any other BCT derived from control theory, were all associated with beneficial changes in multiple motivational constructs (effect sizes ranged from d = 0.12 to d = 0.46). Meta-regression analyses indicated that increases in intention and stage of change, but not autonomous motivation, were significantly related to increases in physical activity. The intervention characteristics associated with changes in motivation seemed to form clusters related to behavioural experience and self-regulation, which have previously been linked to changes in physical activity behaviour. These BCTs and modes of delivery merit further systematic study, and can be used as a foundation for improving interventions targeting increases in motivation for physical activity.

The compendium of self-enactable techniques to change and self-manage motivation and behaviour (

Motivation is a proximal determinant of behavior in many psychological theories, and increasing motivation is central to most behavior change interventions. This systematic review and meta-analysis sought to fill a gap in the literature by identifying features of behavior change interventions associated with favorable changes in three prominent motivational constructs: intention, stage of change and autonomous motivation. A systematic literature search identified 88 intervention studies (N = 18,804) which assessed changes in at least one of these motivational constructs for physical activity (PA). Intervention descriptions were coded for potential moderators, including behavior change techniques (BCTs), modes of delivery and theory use. Random effects comparative subgroup analyses identified 19 BCTs and 12 modes of delivery associated with changes in at least one motivational outcome. Interventions which were delivered face-to-face or in gym settings, or which included the BCTs problem solving, self-monitoring of behavior or behavioral practice/rehearsal, or which included the combination of self-monitoring of behavior with any other BCTs derived from control theory, were all associated with beneficial changes in multiple motivational constructs. Meta-regression analyses indicated that increases in intention and stage of change, but not autonomous motivation, were related to increases in PA. The intervention characteristics identified here as effective in changing motivation seemed to form clusters related to behavioral experience and self-regulation, which have previously been linked to changes in behavior as well. These BCTs and modes of delivery merit further systematic study, and could be used as a foundation for improving interventions targeting increases in motivation for PA.

For mindfulness programs to have sustained benefits, participants should continue to practice mindfulness independently. Behavioral theories have been used to predict and change other health behaviors, but have rarely been applied to mindfulness practice. This research aimed to identify predictors/determinants of sustained mindfulness practice after a school-based mindfulness program (Study 1) and to develop and test a booster intervention to increase mindfulness practice (Study 2). These studies were embedded in a larger trial evaluating a school-based mindfulness program involving 12-15 year-olds (Healthy Learning Mind, HLM). Study 1 examined theory-based predictors of mindfulness practice among participants in Batch 1 of the HLM trial (n = 310). These findings were used to develop a brief motivational booster intervention, which Study 2 evaluated in a within-trial cluster-randomized controlled trial in Batch 3 of the HLM trial (HLM Only arm n = 177; HLM + booster arm n = 152). In Study 1, 40% of youths reported having practiced mindfulness at a 6-month follow-up. The perception that peers were practicing mindfulness exercises predicted mindfulness practice (β = .497, p = .002), and a key self-reported reason for non-practice was that they did not find mindfulness useful. The booster intervention (designed to specifically target these descriptive norms and outcome expectations) demonstrated some positive trends in the determinants of mindfulness practice, but did not increase mindfulness practice. The limited effectiveness of the booster intervention might be explained by the minimal contact time of the booster intervention or its delivery in the later lessons of HLM. This study demonstrates how behavior change theories can be applied to help promote independent mindfulness practice outside of intervention settings.

Objectives While practicing mindfulness can potentially mitigate and prevent mental health problems among adolescents, mindfulness programs delivered in schools do not uniformly lead to uptake of mindfulness practice. This low adherence threatens the internal validity of mindfulness trials and may hinder the alleviation of mental health problems in youth who fail to take up potentially effective techniques. Consequently, it is vital to investigate what predicts uptake of independent mindfulness practice in such interventions. Methods Using path analyses, this study investigates whether social cognitions from the Reasoned Action Approach and initial mental health predict mindfulness practice among 1646 adolescent recipients of the school-based Healthy Learning Mind mindfulness intervention. Results In line with the Reasoned Action Approach, descriptive and injunctive norms, and positive and negative outcome expectations predicted intention to practice mindfulness (R 2 = .37, p < .001), which in turn predicted different measures of mindfulness practice itself (R 2 = .09-.17, p < .001). Neither perceived behavioral control nor mental health variables (depressive symptoms, internalization and externalization of difficulties, and resilience: R 2 = .01, p > .05) were associated with mindfulness practice after the intervention. Conclusion Social norms and outcome expectations are potential intervention targets to increase mindfulness practice motivation and behavior among adolescents.