In human vision, the optics of the eye map neighboring points of the environment onto neighboring photoreceptors in the retina. This retinotopic encoding principle is preserved in the early visual areas. Under normal viewing conditions, due to the motion of objects and to eye movements, the retinotopic representation of the environment undergoes fast and drastic shifts. Yet, perceptually our environment appears stable suggesting the existence of non-retinotopic representations in addition to the well-known retinotopic ones. Here, we present a simple psychophysical test to determine whether a given visual process is accomplished in retino- or non-retinotopic coordinates. As examples, we show that visual search and motion perception can occur within a non-retinotopic frame of reference. These findings suggest that more mechanisms than previously thought operate non-retinotopically. Whether this is true for a given visual process can easily be found out with our “litmus test.”

Summary Much evidence indicates that humans and other species process large-scale visual information before fine spatial detail. Neurophysiological data obtained with paralyzed eyes suggest that this coarse-to-fine sequence results from spatiotemporal filtering by neurons in the early visual pathway. However, the eyes are normally never stationary: rapid gaze shifts (saccades) incessantly alternate with slow fixational movements. To investigate the consequences of this oculomotor cycle on the dynamics of perception, we combined spectral analysis of visual input signals, neural modeling, and gaze-contingent control of retinal stimulation in humans. We show that the saccade/fixation cycle reformats the flow impinging on the retina in a way that initiates coarse-to-fine processing at each fixation. This finding reveals that the visual system uses oculomotor-induced temporal modulations to sequentially encode different spatial components and suggests that, rather than initiating coarse-to-fine processing, spatiotemporal coupling in the early visual pathway builds on the information dynamics of the oculomotor cycle.

Like all saccades, microsaccades cause both spatial and temporal changes in the input to the retina. In space, recent studies have shown that these small shifts precisely relocate a narrow (smaller than the foveola) high-acuity retinal locus on the stimulus. However, it has long been questioned whether the temporal modulations resulting from microsaccades are also beneficial for vision. To address this question, we combined spectral analysis of the visual input to the retina with measurements of contrast sensitivity in humans. Estimation of how different types of eye movements redistribute the power of an otherwise stationary stimulus shows that small saccades contribute more temporal power than ocular drift in the low-frequency range, suggesting a specific role for these movements in the encoding of low spatial frequencies. However, an influence on contrast sensitivity was only found for saccades with amplitudes larger than 30′. Contrast thresholds remained highly similar in the presence and absence of smaller saccades. Furthermore, saccades of all amplitudes, including microsaccades, were strongly suppressed during exposure to the stimulus. These findings do not support an important function of the visual transients caused by microsaccades.

Summary Attention is crucial for visual perception because it allows the visual system to effectively use its limited resources by selecting behaviourally and cognitively relevant stimuli from the large amount of information impinging on the eyes. Reflexive, stimulus-driven attention is essential for successful interactions with the environment because it can, for example, speed up responses to life threatening events. It is commonly believed that exogenous attention operates in the retinotopic coordinates of the early visual system. Here, using a novel experimental paradigm [1], we show that a non-retinotopic cue improves both accuracy and reaction times in a visual search task. Furthermore, the influence of the cue is limited both in space and time, a characteristic typical of exogenous cueing. These and other recent findings show that many more aspects of vision are processed non-retinotopically than previously thought.

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Recent studies have shown that a variety of aftereffects occurs in a non-retinotopic frame of reference. These findings have been taken as strong evidence that remapping of visual information occurs in a hierarchic manner in the human cortex with an increasing magnitude from early to higher levels. Other studies, however, failed to find non-retinotopic aftereffects. These experiments all relied on paradigms involving eye movements. Recently, we have developed a new paradigm, based on the Ternus–Pikler display, which tests retinotopic vs. non-retinotopic processing without the involvement of eye movements. Using this paradigm, we found strong evidence that attention, form, and motion processing can occur in a non-retinotopic frame of reference. Here, we show that motion and tilt aftereffects are largely retinotopic.

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