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This article is an extensive review that provides an update on the pathophysiology, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of diabetic gastroenteropathy. There is no reported prevalence, but it has been described that patients with type 1 diabetes have a cumulative incidence at 10 years of 5.2%, and type 2 patients, 1%. Also, in the group of type 1 diabetes, it has been observed that women are more likely to present this condition (5.8% vs 3.5%). Many factors are associate with its development ( e.g. , hyperglycemia, vagal dysfunction, loss of expression of neural nitric oxide synthase in the myenteric plexus, alterations in the Cajal interstitial cell network, and oxidative stress). Gastrointestinal discomfort could be perceived 70% higher in diabetic patients, describing that 25% of diabetic patients experience gastrointestinal symptoms. Diabetic enteropathy could affect any portion of the gastrointestinal tract, but esophageal alterations were described in more than 60% of diabetic patients, also 60% of them present constipation, and 20%, diarrhea. Gastric emptying scintigraphy is useful to evaluate gastroparesis, therefore, gastric retention of more than 60% at 2 h has a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 20% for diagnosis; however, other studies such as breath tests, with a sensitivity of 89% and a specificity of 80%, or the endoscopic capsule contribute to the diagnosis. There is no cure; however, management must be multidisciplinary, focused on slowing the progression of diabetic gastroenteropathy, reducing symptoms, and restoring function; that includes nutritional recommendation, maintain glucose levels kept below 180 mg/dL, use of prokinetics, anti-emetics; nowadays, it has been special interest in surgical treatment, such as pyloroplasty, also gastric electrical stimulation appears to be another alternative.

Summary Cushing’s syndrome is an endocrine disorder that causes anovulatory infertility secondary to hypercortisolism; therefore, pregnancy rarely occurs during its course. We present the case of a 24-year-old, 16-week pregnant female with a 10-month history of unintentional weight gain, dorsal gibbus, nonpruritic comedones, hirsutism and hair loss. Initial biochemical, hormonal and ultrasound investigations revealed hypokalemia, increased nocturnal cortisolemia and a right adrenal mass. The patient had persistent high blood pressure, hyperglycemia and hypercortisolemia. She was initially treated with antihypertensive medications and insulin therapy. Endogenous Cushing’s syndrome was confirmed by an abdominal MRI that demonstrated a right adrenal adenoma. The patient underwent right laparoscopic adrenalectomy and anatomopathological examination revealed an adrenal adenoma with areas of oncocytic changes. Finally, antihypertensive medication was progressively reduced and glycemic control and hypokalemia reversal were achieved. Long-term therapy consisted of low-dose daily prednisone. During follow-up, despite favorable outcomes regarding the patient’s Cushing’s syndrome, stillbirth was confirmed at 28 weeks of pregnancy. We discuss the importance of early diagnosis and treatment of Cushing’s syndrome to prevent severe maternal and fetal complications. Learning points: Pregnancy can occur, though rarely, during the course of Cushing’s syndrome. Pregnancy is a transient physiological state of hypercortisolism and it must be differentiated from Cushing’s syndrome based on clinical manifestations and laboratory tests. The diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome during pregnancy may be challenging, particularly in the second and third trimesters because of the changes in the maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Pregnancy during the course of Cushing’s syndrome is associated with severe maternal and fetal complications; therefore, its early diagnosis and treatment is critical.

Summary Type B insulin resistance syndrome (TBIR) is a rare autoimmune disease caused by antibodies against the insulin receptor. It should be considered in patients with dysglycaemia and severe insulin resistance when other more common causes have been ruled out. We report a case of a 72-year-old male with a 4-year history of type 2 diabetes who presented with hypercatabolism, vitiligo, acanthosis nigricans, and hyperglycaemia resistant to massive doses of insulin (up to 1000 U/day). Detection of anti-insulin receptor antibodies confirmed TBIR. The patient received six pulses of methylprednisolone and daily treatment with cyclophosphamide for 6 months. Response to treatment was evident after the fourth pulse of methylprednisolone, as indicated by weight gain, decreased glycosylated haemoglobin and decreased requirement of exogenous insulin that was later discontinued due to episodes of hypoglycaemia. Remission was eventually achieved and the patient is currently asymptomatic, does not require insulin therapy, has normal glycaemia and is awaiting initiation of maintenance therapy with azathioprine. Thus, TBIR remitted without the use of rituximab. This case highlights the importance of diagnosis and treatment in a timely fashion, as well as the significance of clinical features, available laboratory findings and medication. Large controlled studies are required to standardise a therapeutic protocol, particularly in resource-constrained settings where access to rituximab is limited. Learning points: Type B insulin resistance syndrome is a rare autoimmune disorder that should be considered in patients with dysglycaemia, severe insulin resistance and a concomitant autoimmune disease. Serological confirmation of antibodies against the insulin receptor is not necessary in all cases due to the high associated mortality without timely treatment. Although there is no standardised immunosuppressive treatment, a protocol containing rituximab, cyclophosphamide and steroids has shown a significant reduction in previously reported mortality rates. The present case, reports successful remission in an atypical patient using cyclophosphamide and methylprednisolone, which is an effective therapy in countries in which rituximab is not covered by health insurance. When there is improvement in the hypercatabolic phase, the insulin dose should be reduced and/or discontinued to prevent hypoglycaemia; a mild postprandial hyperglycaemic state should be acceptable.

Adrenal hemorrhage is the most common cause of adrenal mass in newborns. We present a case of a fullterm male, born by cesarean section due to acute fetal distress from a mother with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. He was diagnosed with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, multifactorial shock, and early neonatal sepsis. On the seventh day of hospitalization, hemoglobin dropped and thus blood transfusion was required, and abdominal ultrasound showed bilateral adrenal hemorrhage. He developed relative adrenal insufficiency without either hemodynamic instability or electrolyte imbalances. The use of parenteral corticosteroids was not required. Follow-up ultrasonography and adrenal axis laboratory examination revealed complete resolution of adrenal hemorrhage. Neonatal adrenal hemorrhage has a wide variety of clinical manifestations. Ultrasound is preferred for both initial screening and follow-up evaluation. Adrenal insufficiency occurs rarely in neonatal adrenal hemorrhage. Treatment is usually conservative. We emphasize the importance of a timely diagnosis and clinical follow-up of adrenal hemorrhage in neonates with fetal distress born from mothers with severe COVID-19.

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