Two experiments employing white subjects examined the effects of anonymity, expected retaliation, race of target, and a campus racial disturbance on delivered and anticipated aggression (electric shock). Prior to statistical treatment, the data were subjected to principal components analyses, with three aggression components being identified: general direct aggression, extremes in direct aggression, and indirect aggression. In Experiment I, it was found that less direct and more indirect forms of aggression were delivered to black than to white targets when there was opportunity for the target to retaliate. When retaliation was unlikely, the subjects delivered more direct forms of aggression to black than to white targets. Following a campus racial disturbance, there were increases in direct forms of aggression toward black targets, with such aggression now being less dependent on the opportunity for retaliation (Experiment II). In both experiments more direct aggression was anticipated from black than from white targets. The results support the conclusion that white persons have learned to fear black retaliation, but that this fear acts only to inhibit direct forms of aggression in certain denned situations.Among the most salient characteristics of the current black movement is the use of violence or the threat of violence to produce equality between black and white people. Black authors (e.g., Baldwin, 1963), as well as certain black militant leaders, have emphasized that the black man is determined to get equal rights and that white society must change or face reprisals. It is not surprising then to find some anecdotal evidence which suggests that white people have learned to fear black retaliation. A good example is an excerpt from a letter to the editor published by the Northern Illinois University student newspaper, The Northern Star:We are going to ask that our names be withheld from this letter. Don't bother writing in to sneer, 'what'sa matter whitey, you scared?' Yeah, we are. You militants may feel free to gloat. Those of us, 1 This study is based on a thesis presented by the first author to the Department of Psychology at Northern Illinois University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the MA degree. It was reported at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Cincinnati, April 1970. The first and second authors are now at Florida State University.2 Requests for reprints should be sent to Seymore

The present experiment attempted to reconcile previous results on the relationship of erotic stimuli and aggression. Subjects were either insulted or not insulted prior or subsequent to observing erotic stimuli of varying levels of arousal inducements. It was found, in support of prior research, that mildly erotic stimuli had an inhibiting effect on aggression when viewed subsequent to anger arousal, whereas highly erotic stimuli tended to maintain aggression at a level similar to nonerotic exposure. Prior viewing of erotic stimuli, however, had a facilitative effect on aggressive behavior. It was proposed that erotic stimuli have two components (arousal and attentional shift) that interact with anger arousal to either inhibit or facilitate aggressive behavior. The article considers the implications of this two-component system for future research on erotic and aggressive stimuli.

Two experiments employing white subjects examined the influence of potential ingroup censure and race of target on aggressive and rewarding responses. In Experiment I, subjects were allowed to aggress against a black or white target under conditions varying availability of their responses to an ingroup member. Prior to statistical analysis, two orthogonal variates were identified: direct aggression and indirect aggression. It was found that lower levels of direct aggression were delivered to black targets under potential censure conditions (responses available) than under noncensure conditions (responses not available). No differential responding was exhibited toward white targets as a function of the same situational conditions. In Experiment II, potential censure was found to facilitate both a direct form of reward and an indirect form of aggression toward black targets. Results were discussed in terms of problems associated with heightening aggressive inhibitions. An expanded conceptualization of the notion of indirect aggression was offered.Recent research by the present authors has sought to examine the effects of potential black retaliation on interracial encounters. White male college students were provided with an opportunity to deliver aggression (Donnerstein, Donnerstein, Simon, & Ditrichs, 1972) or reward to black or white targets under conditions of varying opportunity for target retaliation.Results clearly indicated that black potential to retaliate may operate to reduce direct negative responses. Specifically, it was found that subjects paired with black targets exhibited lower levels of a direct type of aggression and increased levels of a direct type of reward in situations where opportunity for target retaliation was higher than where such opportunity was low. Subjects paired with white targets showed no differential responding as a function of the same situational conditions. Based on these results it would appear that potential black retaliation may be a powerful variable in establishing equality in interracial interactions.

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