In the fermentative process using Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce bioethanol, the performance of cells is often compromised by the accumulation of ethanol. However, the mechanism of how S. cerevisiae responds against ethanol stress remains elusive. In the current study, S. cerevisiae cells were cultured in YPD (yeast extract - peptone - dextrose) medium containing various concentrations of ethanol (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, and 15% (v/v)). Compared with the control group without ethanol, the mean cell volume of S. cerevisiae decreased significantly in the presence of 7.5% and 10% ethanol after incubation for 16 h (P < 0.05), and in the presence of 15% ethanol at all 3 sampling time points (1, 8, and 16 h) (P < 0.05). The exposure of S. cerevisiae cells to ethanol also led to an increase in malonyldialdehyde content (P < 0.05) and a decrease in sulfhydryl group content (P < 0.05). Moreover, the observations through transmission electron microscopy enabled us to relate ultrastructural changes elicited by ethanol with the cellular stress physiology. Under ethanol stress, the integrity of the cell membrane was compromised. The swelling or distortion of mitochondria together with the occurrence of a single and large vacuole was correlated with the addition of ethanol. These results suggested that the cell membrane is one of the targets of ethanol, and the degeneration of mitochondria promoted the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species.
Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinases (MAP3Ks), the top components of MAPK cascades, modulate many biological processes, such as growth, development and various environmental stresses. Nevertheless, the roles of MAP3Ks remain poorly understood in cotton. In this study, GhMAP3K65 was identified in cotton, and its transcription was inducible by pathogen infection, heat stress, and multiple signalling molecules. Silencing of GhMAP3K65 enhanced resistance to pathogen infection and heat stress in cotton. In contrast, overexpression of GhMAP3K65 enhanced susceptibility to pathogen infection and heat stress in transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana. The expression of defence-associated genes was activated in transgenic N. benthamiana plants after pathogen infection and heat stress, indicating that GhMAP3K65 positively regulates plant defence responses. Nevertheless, transgenic N. benthamiana plants impaired lignin biosynthesis and stomatal immunity in their leaves and repressed vitality of their root systems. In addition, the expression of lignin biosynthesis genes and lignin content were inhibited after pathogen infection and heat stress. Collectively, these results demonstrate that GhMAP3K65 enhances susceptibility to pathogen infection and heat stress by negatively modulating growth and development in transgenic N. benthamiana plants.
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