Bee crisis is threatening worldwide food security. Pesticides are extensively used in the agricultural zone. Unfortunately, these pesticides cause severe toxicity toward pollinators than the target pests such as honeybees. This review summarizes the different studies related to pesticide hazards of bees. This paper reported risks of pesticides neurological and physiological poisoning toward honeybees. Pesticides act as poison and ruin vital functions involved in leaning and cognition, behavior and, the body physiological mechanisms. Many laboratory and field research data evaluated the lethal and sub-lethal poisoning on bee foraging dance, learning, and memory abilities of honeybees. Insecticide residues are detected in bee bodies and LD50 and LC50 values evaluated. It is also studied that in honeybees systemic insecticide residues and, its metabolite adulterated in their body during foraging activities. Similarly, pesticide-contaminated food stored in a hive consumed continuously by honeybees may cause sub-lethal toxicity effects. Which causes anomalous bee social behavior and ultimately leads to colony collapse disorder. If population of pollinator decline it will disturb the food chain and leads to food crisis. This review emphasized causes of bee decline with the emergence of pesticides in agricultural domains.
Baiting systems have been introduced using slow-acting bait toxicants to provide environment-friendly and target-specific termite management. In the present study, the Exterra termite bait system (USA) with chlorfluazuron, a chitin synthesis inhibitor, as the active ingredient was tested against termite colonies. Ten residential areas of Lahore, infested with subterranean termites were selected for the study. The study period was from 2013 to 2015. In-ground stations were installed at 10 sites and above-ground stations were only installed at four test sites. Requiem termite bait was prepared according to the label instructions. Results showed that the range of termite activity was between 30 and 214 d to first termite activity on underground monitors with a mean of 78.23 ± 6.44. Timeline graphs also show activity of termites and active ingredient placement for each of the stations at each site. As termite feeding activity in the stations increased, there was a decrease in termite activities in wooden structures, followed by cessation of termite feeding and foraging activity noted in the building structures. It was concluded that a termite baiting system in Pakistan has the potential to suppress and reduce termite populations, when foraging termites feed on the active ingredient and share with nest mates through trophallaxis by installing more bait stations and prolonging baiting period.
Exposure of honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) to pesticides disturbed normal physiological and behavioral functions required for normal foraging and colony maintenance. The present study was aimed towards establishing the mean lethal concentration (LC50) of three pesticides viz. carbamate (carbaryl), organophosphate (chlorpyrifos) and neonicotinoid (imidacloprid) in honeybees through feeding bioassay laboratory trial. Deleteriousness was confirmed through mortality rate, number of survival bees, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), total protein (TP) levels, AChE gene transcription level, and gut tissues histological analysis of exposed honeybees. Mean mortality rate was calculated for 96 h interval at three different concentrations of tested pesticides (5, 2.5, and 1.25 mg L−1), and LC50 values calculated for 48 and 96 h interval. AChE enzyme and TP level are determined by ELIZA and spectrophotometer, respectively. Results revealed that imidacloprid had the lowest LC50 (0.477 ng/bee) values as compared with carbaryl and chlorpyrifos. High mortality rate was observed at highest dose, being impidacloprid have more lethal effects as compared with other pesticides. Similarly, biochemical analysis revealed that imidiacloprid and chlorpyrifos significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased AChE and TP levels, whereas carbaryl significantly (P ≤ 0.05) decreased them. Similarly, probe based RT qPCR revealed that imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos treatments significantly (P ≤ 0.05) enhanced the AChE level whereas carbaryl decreased it. Histological analysis showed that the gut tissues of honeybees exposed to pesticide treatment had substantial morphological abnormalities. In a nutshell, imidacloprid, carbaryl and chlorpyrifos have substantial toxic effects on all the study attributes of honeybees with imidacloprid being most toxic.
The aim of this study was to test the bioavailability and degradation in soil of the termiticides bifenthrin and fipronil, which are used to treat subterranean termites (Heterotermes indicola, Wasmann). Soil collected from different areas of Lahore was categorized as sandy clay loam (SCL) or sandy loam (SL). Laboratory bioassays were conducted to determine the bioavailability ratio of bifenthrin and fipronil in each type of soil after different periods of time. LT50 values were determined posttreatment at different time intervals. Regarding soil type, both termiticides were more effective in SL soil, compared with SCL soil posttreatment. There were significant differences in termite mortality in treated compared with untreated control samples (P < 0.005). To test the degradation rate of soil termiticides, both qualitative and quantitative analyses were carried out by HPLC, and the effect of time on termiticide recovery rate determined. Calculated half-life values for bifenthrin (maximum, 1,002 and 1,262 d in SCL soil and SL soil, respectively) indicated that it persisted in both soil types at all concentrations. The maximum calculated half-life values of fipronil were 270 and 555 d in SCL and SL soil, respectively. At lower concentrations and over longer periods of time, fipronil completely degraded in SL soil, while a negligible amount was detected in SCL soil. Termiticide concentration decreased over time, as did the termiticide recovery rate. Overall, bifenthrin was more persistent than fipronil under all treatment conditions tested.
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