Europe forms an interesting laboratory for studying political reactions to mass immigration and integration of ethnic minorities during times of political turbulence and economic crisis. Political leaders of mainstream parties, under pressure from critics of intensified immigration and now from the social effects of the Great Recession, act reactively and defensively. They respond to a political backlash against immigration and to concerns about unemployment and job security by criticizing (mainly illegal) immigrants for welfare parasitism, reluctance to integrate and even criminality. Such criticism generates a climate of suspicion and hostility towards immigrants and legitimizes policies that restrict immigration and immigrant rights. The leaders also describe 'multiculturalism' -portrayed as uncritical acceptance of cultural diversity -as a failure, and suggest more 'realistic' (read: less tolerant, more assimilationist) policy strategies.

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Following EU enlargement in 2004, the United Kingdom and Ireland experienced large‐scale migration from Poland and other new EU states. The Poles who migrated to both jurisdictions were demographically similar and have faced similar challenges although these have begun to diverge in the context of Brexit. Previous research emphasized the intentional unpredictability of many Polish migrants who deferred decisions whether to settle or return which appears to account for limited political incorporation in both the Irish and UK cases prior to Brexit. This literature also examined how such migrants have become socially embedded but not politically integrated. Drawing on surveys conducted in Ireland and the UK during 2018, we highlight predicaments arising from the thin nature of EU citizenship which allowed for free movement but has neglected political integration. In the Irish case, we suggest that EU migrants, including Poles, are likely to remain detached from citizenship and political participation.

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The Republic of Ireland has had a significant Polish minority since the European Union enlargement of 2004. Despite their positive reception and successful economic integration, Poles rarely stand as candidates in local elections (in which all foreigners are entitled to run and vote); in fact, their involvement has even diminishedfrom nine Polish candidates in 2009 and 2014, to three in 2019. This article, based on interviews with 13 of the 19 Poles who have run thus far, 15 other politically or socially active Polish migrants and a survey (N = 503, CAPI, conducted in 2018) of Poles in the Republic of Ireland (henceforth Ireland) investigates this conundrum of a lack of progress in political integration. The political opportunity structure can be analysed from the perspective of the receiving political systemfor example the attitude of political partiesor the perspective of the immigrant community. This article focuses on the latter and demonstrates that changes in the Polish community in Ireland over the last decade have made political integration more difficult. Our findings suggest that the politics and policies of the country of origin should also be considered as an important element influencing the political integration of migrants in the destination country.

This chapter is devoted to case of Polish diaspora and current diaspora policies and social protection of Poles abroad. The first part presents the general overview of Polish diaspora and its diversification. The second part describes the institutional framework, general strategy and concrete activities the Polish state offers its citizens and persons of Polish origin residing abroad, such as voting rights, repatriation and return, and education. The main part of the chapter focuses on diaspora policies and social protection activities in five areas: unemployment, health care, pensions, family benefits and guaranteed minimum resources. Overall, we show that the main goal of Polish diaspora policies is to consolidate the diversified and dispersed Polish communities abroad and strengthen the cultural links with the country of origin. The priority of diaspora policies is thus to maintain national identity and promotion of Polish language and culture among Poles residing in other countries.

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Political impact of diasporas. The case of Central and Eastern European and post-Soviet countries Most of the Central and Eastern European and post-soviet countries have a longlasting tradition of emigration and possess large diasporas, often dispersed all over the world. Due to their volume and socio-economic position diasporas become on the one hand independent entities in international relations, on the other – influential actors on the political scene in the country of origin and targets of state’s policy. This article aims to analyze the political impact of diasporas on the relations with country of origin as well as on international politics. The case studies are countries of Central and Eastern Europe and post-soviet region. The article consists of four parts. The first is devoted to the conceptual considerations around the definition of diaspora and its role as subject and object of politics. The next two parts analyse the place of diasporas as actors in international relations and in the internal politics of the countries of origin. In the last section the diaspora politics are discussed, illustrated by selected examples of countries of the region.