In tissue engineering, 3D printing is an important tool that uses biocompatible materials, cells, and supporting components to fabricate complex 3D printed constructs. This review focuses on the cytocompatibility characteristics of 3D printed constructs, made from different synthetic and natural materials. From the overview of this article, inkjet and extrusion-based 3D printing are widely used methods for fabricating 3D printed scaffolds for tissue engineering. This review highlights that scaffold prepared by both inkjet and extrusion-based 3D printing techniques showed significant impact on cell adherence, proliferation, and differentiation as evidenced by in vitro and in vivo studies. 3D printed constructs with growth factors (FGF-2, TGF-β1, or FGF-2/TGF-β1) enhance extracellular matrix (ECM), collagen I content, and high glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content for cell growth and bone formation. Similarly, the utilization of 3D printing in other tissue engineering applications cannot be belittled. In conclusion, it would be interesting to combine different 3D printing techniques to fabricate future 3D printed constructs for several tissue engineering applications.
Advancement in materials science and manufacturing processes helps in expanding the application span of materials in biotechnology. The technological development of biocompatible materials aids in improving health conditions, cancerous treatment, organ implants, and as well as provides several techniques to patient treatment. Hydroxyapatite (HAP) is considered as a potential material for orthopedics and dental implants due to its eminent biocompatibility and natural apatite characteristics. It is regarded as viable and cost effective solution of many biomedical applications. Major challenges in expanding the application span of HAP include obtaining optimum mechanical, chemical, and biological properties simultaneously while making its manufacturing processes cost effective. The main purpose of the current work is to synthesize and characterize high strength HAP with high degree of crystallinity and purity, which could be able to fulfill the requirements of modern biological materials. In this work, egg-shell which is considered as garbage is utilized as calcium source to synthesize HAP. Initially, egg-shells are properly cleaned with distilled water and dried. Ball milling operation is used to produce egg-shell particles of nano to micron range. The particles then mixed with controlled amount of phosphoric acid. The mixture is then sintered by heat treating at 900°C for 2 hours. The heat treatment (sintering) process is used to enhance the density as well as strength of egg-shell material. After synthesis of HAP, it is characterized through X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and laser particle analyzer. Composition of HAP is investigated through XRD. Furthermore, surface topography of nano-crystalline HAP powder is measured through Scanning Electron Microscope while particle size distribution is found through laser particle analyzer. It is found that the addition of phosphoric acid in milled egg-shell and heat treatment give rise HAP in the sample. In addition, particle size varies from hundreds of nanometers to several micrometers. The results and analysis of the current work may provide insight of different properties which may lead to the development of optimum and cost effective HAP material. The current study could be further extended in increasing application envelop of biocompatible materials.
The arrangement of fibers into three-dimensional (3D) complex structure is constructing a sheet of membrane, depending on the fabrication technique. The fiber mats and scaffolds have been used in various applications including tissue engineering which involve the integration of cells and tissues within the pores between the fibers. There are several techniques that have been opted to produce specifically nanofibers as its efficacy in tissue healing is prominent compared to microfibers. Among the fabrication techniques (drawing, template synthesis, temperature-induced phase separation, molecular self-assembly, and electrospinning), electrospinning method has drawn attention due to their easy handling, inexpensive, and ability for membrane scale-up with the production of fibers ranging from few nanometers to several microns. Researchers have employed a variety of electrospinning methods, including blended/co-electrospinning, emulsion, coaxial, side-by-side, and triaxial electrospinning. In electrospinning smooth formation of nanofibers for tissue healing with less appearance of spray and beads, several parameters such as humidity, temperature, voltage, flow rate, viscosity, concentration, molecular weight, surface tension, conductivity, and solvent volatile need to be tailored. The morphology of nanofibers formation should support the size and structure of the surrounded cells and tissues. Besides, the types of degradable polymeric materials also play a role in the formation of stable nanofibers. This review paper aimed to provide information on the techniques to produce nanofibers, intended to the basic exploration of electrospinning.
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