Molecular mechanisms of multidrug resistance in Vibrio cholerae belonging to non-O1, non-O139 serogroups isolated during 1997 to 1998 in Calcutta, India, were investigated. Out of the 94 strains examined, 22 strains were found to have class I integrons. The gene cassettes identified were dfrA1, dfrA15, dfrA5, and dfrA12 for trimethoprim; aac(6)-Ib for amikacin and tobramycin; aadA1 and aadA2 for streptomycin and spectinomycin; and ereA2 for erythromycin resistance. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the presence of dfrA5, dfrA12, aac(6)-Ib, and ereA2 cassettes in class I integrons of V. cholerae. Forty-three of 94 strains also had plasmids, and out of these, 14 contained both class I integrons and plasmids. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis followed by Southern hybridization revealed that in the 14 plasmid-bearing strains, class I integrons resided either on chromosomes, on plasmids, or on both. Our results indicated that besides class I integrons and plasmids, a conjugative transposon element, SXT, possibly contributed to the multiple antibiotic resistance.Cholera is a serious epidemic disease caused by the gramnegative bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Only V. cholerae strains belonging to the O1 and O139 serogroups are thought to be capable of causing epidemic cholera. Strains belonging to serogroups other than O1 and O139, collectively referred to as non-O1, non-O139 strains, are ubiquitously found in the aquatic environs (19) and are also capable of causing sporadic diarrhea. In 1996, an inexplicable upsurge in the incidence of cholera strains belonging to serogroups other than O1 and O139 occurred in Calcutta, India. After extensive molecular characterization, these strains were found to be devoid of the ctx filamentous phage (CTX) (31) and some other virulence genes (27). Based on these findings, it was concluded that some strains of V. cholerae belonging to different serotypes can cause diarrhea clinically indistinguishable from that associated with cholera (5) by a mechanism that could be distinct from that employed by the toxigenic V. cholerae O1 and O139 strains. The nomenclature "enteropathogenic V. cholerae" (EPVC) was proposed to include these serotypes (27). The incidence of EPVC had shown an upward trend from 1997 that continued into 1998. In the months of July and August 1998, the EPVC strains constituted one-third of the V. cholerae strains isolated from hospitalized patients (12). Recently a comparative study of clinical and environmental isolates of non-O1, non-O139 V. cholerae strains belonging to matching serogroups from our laboratories revealed that, despite sharing the same serogroups, the environmental and clinical isolates were genetically heterogeneous and also that the resistance to multiple antibiotics was more common among the clinical isolates (5). Multiple-antibiotic-resistant isolates of non-O1, non-O139V. choelrae strains were identified in children with diarrhea in Bangkok, Thailand (7).Reports of drug-resistant V. cholerae strains are appearing with increasing frequency (2...

We examined the distribution of class I integrons and SXT elements in Vibrio cholerae O1 El Tor strains, isolated in Calcutta, India, before and after the V. cholerae O139 outbreak in 1992. Class I integrons, with aadA1 gene cassette, were detected primarily in the pre-O139 strains; the SXT element was found mainly in the post-O139 strains.

There was an inexplicable upsurge in the incidence of non-O1, non-O139 Vibrio cholerae among hospitalized patients admitted to the Infectious Diseases Hospital, Calcutta, India, between February and March 1996. Of the 18 strains of V. cholerae isolated during this period, 15 belonged to the non-O1, non-O139 serogroups (4 belonged to O144, 3 belonged to O11, 1 each belonged to O6, O8, O12, O19, O39, and O58, and 2 strains could not be typed), 2 belonged to the O139 serogroup, and 1 belonged to the O1 serogroup. Cell-free culture supernatants of 13 representative non-O1, non-O139 V. cholerae strains evoked a distinct cytotoxic effect on CHO and HeLa cells, and the strains examined produced the nonmembrane-damaging cytotoxin. By several PCR assays, it was determined that none of the non-O1, non-O139 strains were positive for the ctxA, zot, ace, andtcpA genes and for the genes representing the heat-labile toxin, heat-stable toxin, and verotoxin of Escherichia coli and the various variants of these genes. Studies on the clonality of non-O1, non-O139 V. cholerae strains by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of rRNA genes and of other genes (hlyA, hlyU,hlx, toxR, and attRS1) and by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) collectively indicate that the upsurge which occurred in February and March 1996 was caused by strains belonging to different clones. Overall, there was an excellent correlation between the results of ribotyping, RFLP analysis of various genes, and PFGE, with strains belonging to a particular serogroup showing nearly identical restriction patterns and PFGE profiles. It is clear from this study that some serogroups of V. cholerae can cause diarrhea by a mechanism quite different from that of toxigenic V. cholerae O1 and O139, and we have proposed the nomenclature of enteropathogenic V. cholerae to include these serogroups.

This study identi®ed 17 matching serogroups of Vibrio cholerae belonging to serogroups other than O1 and O139 isolated from human cases and from the environment during a concurrent clinical and environmental study conducted in Calcutta, a cholera endemic area. Isolates within these matching serogroups were compared by various phenotypic and genotypic traits to determine if the environment was the source of the organisms associated with the disease. Clinical strains of V. cholerae were resistant to a greater number of drugs and exhibited multi-drug resistance compared with their environmental counterparts. Except for the presence of the genes for the El Tor haemolysin and the regulatory element ToxR in most of the strains of V. cholerae examined, non-O1, non-O139 V. cholerae strains lacked most of the other known virulence traits associated with toxigenic V. cholerae O1 or O139. Restriction fragment-length polymorphism of virulence-associated genes, ribotypes and DNA ®ngerprints of strains of matched serogroups showed considerable diversity, although some gene polymorphisms and ribotypes of a few strains of different serogroups were similar. It is concluded that despite sharing the same serogroup, environmental and clinical isolates were genetically heterogeneous and were of different lineages.

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For protection against cholera, it is important to develop efficient vaccine capable of inducing anti-toxin as well as anti-colonizing immunity against Vibrio cholerae infections. Earlier, expression of cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) in tomato was reported by us. In the present investigation, toxin co-regulated pilus subunit A (TCPA), earlier reported to be an antigen capable of providing anti-colonization immunity, has been expressed in tomato. Further, to generate more potent combinatorial antigens, nucleotides encoding P4 or P6 epitope of TCPA were fused to cholera toxin B subunit gene (ctxB) and expressed in tomato. Presence of transgenes in the tomato genome was confirmed by PCR and expression of genes was confirmed at transcript and protein level. TCPA, chimeric CTB-P4 and CTB-P6 proteins were also expressed in E. coli. TCPA protein expressed in E. coli was purified to generate anti-TCPA antibodies in rabbit. Immunoblot and G(M1)-ELISA verified the synthesis and assembly of pentameric chimeric proteins in fruit tissue of transgenic tomato plants. The chimeric protein CTB-P4 and CTB-P6 accumulated up to 0.17 and 0.096% of total soluble protein (TSP), respectively, in tomato fruits. Whereas expression of TCPA, CTB-P4 and CTB-P6 in E. coli can be utilized for development of conventional vaccine, expression of these antigens which can provide both anti-toxin as well as anti-colonization immunity, has been demonstrated in plants, in a form which is potentially capable of inducing immune response against cholera infection.

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ObjectiveThe elevated body weight in post-menopausal state attributes to the reduced estrogen levels which is alleviated by resveratrol (RES) but its role in control rats is not well understood. The main objective of the study was to explore the effects of RES on the body weight of ovariectomized (OVX) female rats with controls and to relate their biochemical parameters.MethodsFemale Wistar rats weighing 200–300 g underwent bilateral ovariectomy (OVX) and were fed soya free diet (n = 8 rats per group). In all groups: (Control, Control + Resveratrol, OVX and OVX + Resveratrol) resveratrol was administered orally at a dose of 5 mg/kg/day for 1 month. Glucose and other biochemical parameters were examined.ResultsSignificant reduction in the gain of body weight was observed in the control rats treated with resveratrol. Ovariectomy caused an escalation in gain of body weight due to loss of estrogen which was brought down with resveratrol. There was a slight dip in the blood glucose levels after resveratrol treatment.ConclusionResveratrol significantly reduced the gain of body weight in the control rats and in OVX rats showing its antiobesogenic effects.