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Crop water parameters, including actual evapotranspiration, transpiration, soil evaporation, crop coefficients, evaporative fractions, aerodynamic resistances, surface resistances and percolation fluxes were estimated in a commercial mango orchard during two growing seasons in Northeast Brazil. The actual evapotranspiration (E a) was obtained by the eddy covariance (EC) technique, while for the reference evapotranspiration (E 0); the FAO Penman-Monteith equation was applied. The energy balance closure showed a gap of 12%. For water productivity analysis the E a was then computed with the Bowen ratio determined from the eddy covariance fluxes. The mean accumulated E a for the two seasons was 1419 mm year À1 , which corresponded to a daily average rate of 3.7 mm day À1. The mean values of the crop coefficients based on evapotranspiration (K c) and based on transpiration (K cb) were 0.91 and 0.73, respectively. The single layer K c was fitted with a degree days function. Twenty percent of evapotranspiration originated from direct soil evaporation. The evaporative fraction was 0.83 on average. The average relative water supply was 1.1, revealing that, in general, irrigation water supply was in good harmony with the crop water requirements. The resulting evapotranspiration deficit was 73-95 mm per season only. The mean aerodynamic resistance (r a) was 37 s m À1 and the bulk surface resistance (r s) was 135 s m À1. The mean unit yield was 45 tonne ha À1 being equivalent to a crop water productivity of 3.2 kg m À3 when based on E a with an economic counterpart of US$ 3.27 m À3. The drawback of this highly productive use of water resources is an unavoidable percolation flux of approximately 300 mm per growing season that is detrimental to the downstream environment and water users.

Investigating the timing of key phenological events across environments with variable seasonality is crucial to understand the drivers of ecosystem dynamics. Leaf production in the tropics is mainly constrained by water and light availability. Identifying the factors regulating leaf phenology patterns allows efficiently forecasting of climate change impacts. We conducted a novel phenological monitoring study across four Neotropical vegetation sites using leaf phenology time series obtained from digital repeated photographs (phenocameras). Seasonality differed among sites, from very seasonally dry climate in the caatinga dry scrubland with an eight-month long dry season to the less restrictive Cerrado vegetation with a six-month dry season. To unravel the main drivers of leaf phenology and understand how they influence seasonal dynamics (represented by the green color channel (Gcc) vegetation index), we applied Generalized Additive Mixed Models (GAMMs) to estimate the growing seasons, using water deficit and day length as covariates. Our results indicated that plant-water relationships are more important in the caatinga, while light (measured as day-length) was more relevant in explaining leafing patterns in Cerrado communities. Leafing behaviors and predictor-response relationships (distinct smooth functions) were more variable at the less seasonal Cerrado sites, suggesting that different life-forms (grasses, herbs, shrubs, and trees) are capable of overcoming drought through specific phenological strategies and associated functional traits, such as deep root systems in trees.

Drylands are predicted to become more arid and saline due to increasing global temperature and drought. Although species from the Caatinga, a Brazilian tropical dry forest, are tolerant to these conditions, the capacity for germination to withstand extreme soil temperature and water deficit associated with climate change remains to be quantified. We aimed to evaluate how germination will be affected under future climate change scenarios of limited water and increased temperature. Seeds of three species were germinated at different temperatures and osmotic potentials. Thermal time and hydrotime model parameters were established and thresholds for germination calculated. Germination performance in 2055 was predicted, by combining temperature and osmotic/salt stress thresholds, considering soil temperature and moisture following rainfall events. The most pessimistic climate scenario predicts an increase of 3.9 °C in soil temperature and 30% decrease in rainfall. Under this scenario, soil temperature is never lower than the minimum and seldomly higher than maximum temperature thresholds for germination. As long as the soil moisture (0.139 cm 3 cm 3 ) requirements are met, germination can be achieved in 1 day.According to the base water potential and soil characteristics, the minimum weekly rainfall for germination is estimated to be 17.5 mm. Currently, the required minimum rainfall occurs in 14 weeks of the year but will be reduced to 4 weeks by 2055. This may not be sufficient for seedling recruitment of some species in the natural environment. Thus, in future climate scenarios, rainfall rather than temperature will be extremely limiting for seed germination.

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O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar as variações nas magnitudes e nas partições dos componentes do balanço de radiação e de energia, obtidos durante o período de crescimento da cana-de-açúcar irrigada (variedade RB92579). O experimento foi conduzido em Juazeiro, BA, localizado na região do Semiárido brasileiro. Os fluxos de calor sensível (H) e calor latente (LE) no ar foram estimados por meio do balanço de energia, com base na razão de Bowen (BERB). Concomitantemente, o crescimento da cultura também foi monitorado. Em análise preliminar deste método, constatou-se que 62,7% dos dados coletados apresentaram consistência física para serem utilizados nas estimativas dos componentes H e LE. Observou-se que o valor médio da relação Rn/Rg foi igual a 59±5%, com os menores valores ocorrendo no início e final do ciclo de cultivo da cana-de-açúcar, enquanto a magnitude dos valores do balanço de radiação de ondas longas (BOL) foi intensificada quando o índice de área foliar (IAF) era reduzido. Além disso, verificou-se também que o valor médio do albedo foi de 23±3% e que 81% da energia disponível foram destinados ao fluxo de calor latente, enquanto os valores do fluxo de calor sensível no ar (H) e no solo (G) representaram 16 e 3%, respectivamente.

A B S T R A C TThe knowledge on soil water dynamics is the basis of crop water management. The soil water balance (SWB) method is used for this purpose. However, its application in cactus may lead to misinterpretation in water efficiency analysis, since it does not consider the amount of water retained in the plant (WRP). This study aimed to evaluate SWB applicability, hydrodynamic changes and water efficiency of forage cactus clones under irrigation. The clones 'Orelha de Elefante Mexicana' (OEM), 'IPA Sertânia' (IPA) and 'Miúda' (MIU) were submitted to irrigation depths (2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 mm) and frequencies (7, 14 and 28 days), in Serra Talhada, PE, Brazil, between March 2012 and August 2013. The SWB was applied, by adding the WRP in the estimate of the effective actual evapotranspiration (ETr EF ). The water efficiency indicators were calculated. The actual evapotranspiration on SWB (ETr SWB ) overestimated ETr EF and, like other SWB components, it was affected by the factors irrigation depth, frequency and clone. The clone OEM is the most efficient, due to the use of the WRP, while MIU leads to highest gross economic returns for sale of cladodes as seed. As conclusion, the application of the soil water balance method in areas cultivated with cactus species must be accompanied by WRP.Alterações hidrodinâmicas da interface solo-palma, evapotranspiração real efetiva e sua eficiência hídrica sob irrigação R E S U M O O conhecimento da dinâmica de água no solo subsidia o manejo hídrico na lavoura. O método do balanço de água no solo (BAS) é usado para este fim, porém sua aplicação em cultivos de cactáceas pode promover interpretação errônea na análise da eficiência hídrica uma vez que não considera a quantidade de água retida na planta (ARP). Objetivou-se avaliar a aplicabilidade do balanço de água no solo, as alterações hidrodinâmicas e eficiência hídrica em cultivos de palma forrageira irrigada. Os clones Orelha de Elefante Mexicana (OEM), IPA Sertânia e Miúda (MIU) foram submetidos às lâminas (2,5; 5,0 e 7,5 mm) e frequências de irrigação (7, 14 e 28 dias), em Serra Talhada, PE, entre março de 2012 e agosto de 2013. O BAS foi aplicado adicionando-se a ARP na estimativa da evapotranspiração real efetiva (ETr EF ). Indicadores de eficiência hídrica foram calculados. A evapotranspiração real baseada no BAS (ETr BAS ) superestimou a ETr EF e semelhante a outros componentes do BAS, foi afetada pelos fatores lâmina-frequência-clone. O clone OEM é o mais eficiente em razão do uso da ARP enquanto o MIU é o que promove maior retorno econômico bruto de venda dos cladódios para semente. Conclui-se que a aplicação do método do balanço de água no solo cultivado com espécies cactáceas deve ser acompanhada da ARP. Key words:water retained in the plant soil water balance cactus modelling Palavras-chave: água retida na planta balanço de água no solo cactáceas modelagem

RESUMOA pecuária leiteira é uma atividade de grande importância no nordeste brasileiro, podendo ser afetada de forma direta e indireta, caso as atuais previsões climáticas sejam confirmadas até o final do século. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estimar os impactos das mudanças climáticas sobre a produção leiteira nos estados de Alagoas, Bahia e Sergipe. Os valores do índice de temperatura e umidade (ITU), do declínio da produção de leite (DPL) e da redução do consumo alimentar (RCA) de vacas leiteiras foram calculados para os cenários climáticos B1 e A1F1 do IPCC. Utilizou-se um modelo multiplicativo para estimar o efeito das alterações de temperatura sobre os valores normais da umidade relativa do ar. Com base em ambos os cenários do IPCC, as regiões produtoras, situadas no norte e litoral do estado da Bahia e áreas litorâneas dos estados de Alagoas e Sergipe, serão afetadas expressivamente em decorrência do aumento do estresse térmico, com reduções marcantes na produção de leite e no consumo alimentar, especialmente de animais com alto potencial genético de produção. Este cenário pode afetar as atuais regiões produtoras dos estados nordestinos, de forma que a exploração leiteira seja limitada aos animais com baixo desempenho produtivo.Palavras-chave: conforto térmico, gado leiteiro, ITU, risco climático, SIG Climate change scenarios and their impacts on milk production in northeastern states of Brazil ABSTRACTMilk production is an activity of great importance in the Brazilian context, and it may be directly and indirectly affected if current climate predictions are confirmed until the end of this century. The objective of this work was to estimate climate change impacts on milk production in the states of Alagoas, Bahia and Sergipe. Values of the temperature humidity index (THI), decline in milk production (DMP) and decline in feed intake (DFI) of dairy cows were calculated for the B1 and A1F1 climate scenarios, described by the IPCC. A multiplicative model was used to estimate the effect of temperature change on the normal values of relative humidity. Based on both IPCC scenarios, production regions, located in the north and coast of the Bahia state and coastal areas of the states of Alagoas and Sergipe, will be adversely affected due to thermal stress, with profound reduction in milk production and feed intake, especially in case of animals with high genetic production potential. This scenario may affect the current producing in the northeastern states of Brazil, in such a way that milk production be limited only to animals with low productive performance.