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1. It has been suggested previously that people in developed countries do not expose themselves to cold severe enough to induce a metabolic response. The energy expenditure, as both heat production and total heat loss, of nine women was therefore measured continuously while each lived for 30 h in a whole-body calorimeter on two occasions, one at 2 8 O and the other at 22". All subjects followed a predetermined pattern of activity and food intake. The environmental conditions were judged by the subjects to be within those encountered in everyday life. In the standard clothing worn, 28O was considered to be comfortably warm but not too hot, while 22O was judged to be cool but not too cold. 2.Heat production for 24 h was significantly greater at the lower temperature, by (meanf SE) 7.0k 1.1 %. The range was between 2 and 12%. Total heat loss was also significantly greater, by 6%, and there was a large change in the partition of heat loss. At the lower temperature sensible heat loss increased by 29% while evaporative heat loss decreased by 39%.3. Resting metabolism measured in the morning 12-13 h after the last meal was significantly greater at 22O than at 28O, whereas there was no difference when the resting measurement was made for 2.5 h following a meal. 4.In conclusion : (a) environmental temperature may play a more important role than was previously recognized in the energy balance of those living in this country, and (b) there is an indication of at least a partial replacement of cold-induced by diet-induced thermogenesis in man.

Molecular mechanisms underlying brain structure and function are affected by nutrition throughout the life cycle, with profound implications for health and disease. Responses to nutrition are in turn influenced by individual differences in multiple target genes. Recent advances in genomics and epigenomics are increasing understanding of mechanisms by which nutrition and genes interact. This review starts with a short account of current knowledge on nutrition-gene interactions, focusing on the significance of epigenetics to nutritional regulation of gene expression, and the roles of SNP and copy number variants (CNV) in determining individual responses to nutrition. A critical assessment is then provided of recent advances in nutrition-gene interactions, and especially energy status, in three related areas: (i) mental health and well-being, (ii) mental disorders and schizophrenia, (iii) neurological (neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative) disorders and Alzheimer's disease. Optimal energy status, including physical activity, has a positive role in mental health. By contrast, sub-optimal energy status, including undernutrition and overnutrition, is implicated in many disorders of mental health and neurology. These actions are mediated by changes in energy metabolism and multiple signalling molecules, e.g. brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). They often involve epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation and histone modifications. Recent advances show that many brain disorders result from a sophisticated network of interactions between numerous environmental and genetic factors. Personal, social and economic costs of sub-optimal brain health are immense. Future advances in understanding the complex interactions between nutrition, genes and the brain should help to reduce these costs and enhance quality of life.

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Considerable evidence links many neuropsychiatric, neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders with multiple complex interactions between genetics and environmental factors such as nutrition. Mental health problems, autism, eating disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease and brain tumours are related to individual variability in numerous protein-coding and non-coding regions of the genome. However, genotype does not necessarily determine neurological phenotype because the epigenome modulates gene expression in response to endogenous and exogenous regulators, throughout the life-cycle. Studies using both genome-wide analysis of multiple genes and comprehensive analysis of specific genes are providing new insights into genetic and epigenetic mechanisms underlying nutrition and neuroscience. This review provides a critical evaluation of the following related areas: (1) recent advances in genomic and epigenomic technologies, and their relevance to brain disorders; (2) the emerging role of non-coding RNAs as key regulators of transcription, epigenetic processes and gene silencing; (3) novel approaches to nutrition, epigenetics and neuroscience; (4) gene-environment interactions, especially in the serotonergic system, as a paradigm of the multiple signalling pathways affected in neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders. Current and future advances in these four areas should contribute significantly to the prevention, amelioration and treatment of multiple devastating brain disorders.

Nutrition can affect the brain throughout the life cycle, with profound implications for mental health and degenerative disease. Many aspects of nutrition, from entire diets to specific nutrients, affect brain structure and function. The present short review focuses on recent insights into the role of nutrition in cognition and mental health and is divided into four main sections. First, the importance of nutritional balance and nutrient interactions to brain health are considered by reference to the Mediterranean diet, energy balance, fatty acids and trace elements. Many factors modulate the effects of nutrition on brain health and inconsistencies between studies can be explained in part by differences in early environment and genetic variability. Thus, these two factors are considered in the second and third parts of the present review. Finally, recent findings on mechanisms underlying the actions of nutrition on the brain are considered. These mechanisms involve changes in neurotrophic factors, neural pathways and brain plasticity. Advances in understanding the critical role of nutrition in brain health will help to fulfil the potential of nutrition to optimise brain function, prevent dysfunction and treat disease.Brain function and cognition: Early development: Mental health and disease:Nutrigenomics and nutrigeneticsThe role of nutrition in cognitive neuroscience is complex because, as with all aspects of nutrition, it is multifactorial. The concern is not simply with the impact of a single chemical on the brain but with multiple nutrients, metabolites and interacting factors. Nevertheless, despite many controversies, themes are emerging and underlying mechanisms are being elucidated. This position is in part a result of major advances in many areas of the biological sciences and the development of new techniques in molecular biology and brain imaging. Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and the integration of these processes into responses such as learning, attention, memory, intelligence (intelligence quotient; IQ) and consciousness. Many aspects of nutrition, from entire diets to individual nutrients, have been implicated in cognition, mental health, dysfunction and disease (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) . It is not surprising that nutrition affects cognition and mental health because brain structure and function are ultimately dependent on nutritional input. However, it is difficult to assess the precise actions of specific dietary components because individuals eat foods and diets, not individual nutrients. Nevertheless, numerous studies have shown that many aspects of cognition are affected by nutrition, including memory, IQ, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, depression, schizophrenia, dementia, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) .In recent years advances have been made in several key areas of nutrition and cognitive neuroscience. Nutritional interactions and the balance between specific nutritional components are recognised to be of cri...

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