Between January and April 2007, 424 calves under 22 days of age from 108 Dutch dairy herds were sampled to estimate the prevalence of non-normal faeces ('custard-like'-yellowish-coloured with custard consistency or diarrhoea: watery-like faeces) and the shedding of enteropathogens Escherichia coli K99 (E. coli), Coronavirus, Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum), Rotavirus and Clostridium perfringens (Cl. perfringens). In addition, information was collected on animal characteristics and herd-management practices. The probability of detecting each one of five enteropathogens given a calf with 'custard-like' faeces or diarrhoea was estimated using Bayes' rule and was based on the predicted probabilities from a multinominal model including each of five enteropathogens as independent variables. In addition, putative risk factors for the presence of each of five enteropathogens were analysed using logistic regression models with random herd effects. Fifty-seven percent of calves had faeces of normal colour (brownish) and consistency (firm), 23.8% (95%CI: 19.8-28.2%) had 'custard-like' faeces and 19.1% (95%CI: 15.5-23.2%) had diarrhoea. E. coli was the least detected enteropathogen (2.6% (95%CI: 1.3-4.6%) of calves, 9% (95%CI: 5-16%) of herds) and Cl. perfringens was most detected (54.0% (95%CI: 49.1-58.8%) of calves, 85% (95%CI: 77-91%) of herds). E. coli and Coronavirus were detected incidentally in only one or two calves per herd, whereas C. parvum and Cl. perfringens were frequently detected in up to four calves per herd. For calves with 'custard-like' faeces, the probability of detecting Rotavirus from a calf in its first week of age was 0.31 whereas for a calf in its second week, there was a 0.66 probability of detecting C. parvum. The probabilities of detecting E. coli, Rotavirus and C. parvum in calves with diarrhoea in their first week of age were 0.10, 0.20 and 0.43, respectively. In calves with diarrhoea between 1 and 2 weeks of age, the probability of detecting enteropathogens was 0.43 for C. parvum. None of the tested enteropathogens were related to 'custard-like' faeces or diarrhoea in the third week of age. Putative risk factors for E. coli, Coronavirus and C. parvum included the presence of peer-calves shedding Coronavirus, C. parvum or Rotavirus, respectively. Additionally, managerial risk factors such as non-optimal hygienic housing (for Coronavirus) and the routine use of antibiotics for diarrhoeic calves (for C. parvum) were found. No animal or managerial factors were associated with shedding of Cl. perfringens.

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to reevaluate the prevalence of digital dermatitis (DD) and associated risk factors in The Netherlands. Between May 2002 and December 2003, information about the presence or absence of DD lesions and other claw disorders on the hind claws of dairy cows in The Netherlands was collected by 20 hoof trimmers during trimming of all dairy cows in 383 herds. A questionnaire was used to acquire information regarding management and housing. Additional information, such as parity, breed, and stage of lactation of the cows, was provided by the Dutch Herd Book Organization. Digital dermatitis was present in 21.2% (SE = 0.3) of the study population (n = 22,454 cows). The herd prevalence varied from 0% (9.1% of the herds) to 83.0%. Most common was herd prevalence between 5 and 10%. The Holstein-Friesian breed was at higher risk for DD [odds ratio (OR) = 1.7] than was the Meuse Rhine IJssel breed (dual purpose breed). The risk for DD decreased with increasing parity. Cows at the peak of their lactation (30 to 60 d in milk) and in the third parity had higher odds for DD in comparison with cows that were later than 60 DIM. The presence of other claw disorders, such as interdigital dermatitis/heel horn erosion (IDHE), interdigital hyperplasia (HYP), and interdigital phlegmon, appeared to be predisposing for DD. Based on estimation of the population-attributable fraction, it was concluded that if IDHE, HYP, and interdigital phlegmon were not present among the study population, respectively, 32.2, 9.0, and 1.1% of the DD cases could have been prevented. The risk for DD slightly decreased when cows affected by IDHE had access to pasture. Because of the interrelation between infectious claw disorders, an effective intervention strategy against DD should focus on an integrated approach to the control of all infectious claw diseases. Cows trimmed >12 mo before the study (during regular trimming of the entire herd) were at lower risk for DD than were cows that were trimmed at shorter intervals. Animals that had >8 h of access to pasture were at higher risk for DD (OR = 1.6) compared with no access to pasture. Finally, cows in small-sized herds (<45 cows) affected with HYP were at lower risk (OR = 0.6) for DD than were cows affected with HYP in medium- and large-sized herds (60 to 85 cows per herd).

Impaired claw health is one of the major problems causing production loss and reduced animal welfare in dairy cattle. In response, the Dutch Animal Health Service (GD) Ltd. initiated this study, in which claws of lactating and near-term cows and heifers in 430 herds were trimmed by hoof trimmers and the health status of the rear claws recorded. Only herds with >75% of the animals having feet trimmed were considered, resulting in records on 21,611 animals. Eight claw disorders were scored: digital dermatitis (DD), interdigital dermatitis/heel horn erosions (IDHE), sole hemorrhage (SH), chronic laminitis (CL), sole ulcer (SU), white line disease (WLD), interdigital hyperplasia (HYP), and interdigital phlegmona (IP). The prevalence varied from 0.6% (IP) to 39.9% (SH). More than 70% of the animals had at least one claw disorder. Conformation traits and locomotion were recorded once during the animal's first lactation by trained classifiers of the Royal Dutch Cattle Syndicate and completely independent of the moment of claw trimming. Heritabilities were estimated using a sire model, and ranged from <0.01 (IP) to 0.10 (DD and HYP). Genetic correlations of incidences of claw disorders with locomotion were variable, ranging from 0.13 (SH) to -0.91 (CL). Genetic correlations with the rear leg conformation traits were lower, ranging from 0.04 (ID with rear leg side view) to -0.69 (IP with rear leg rear view).

Routine recording of claw health status at claw trimming of dairy cattle has been established in several countries, providing valuable data for genetic evaluation. In this review, we examine issues related to genetic evaluation of claw health; discuss data sources, trait definitions, and data validation procedures; and present a review of genetic parameters, possible indicator traits, and status of genetic and genomic evaluations for claw disorders. Different sources of data and traits can be used to describe claw health. Severe cases of claw disorders can be identified by veterinary diagnoses. Data from lameness and locomotion scoring, activity information from sensors, and feet and leg conformation traits are used as auxiliary traits. The most reliable and comprehensive information is data from regular hoof trimming. In genetic evaluation, claw disorders are usually defined as binary traits, based on whether or not the claw disorder was present (recorded) at least once during a defined time period. The traits can be specific disorders, composite traits, or overall claw health. Data validation and editing criteria are needed to ensure reliable data at the trimmer, herd, animal, and record levels. Different strategies have been chosen, reflecting differences in herd sizes, data structures, management practices, and recording systems among countries. Heritabilities of the most commonly analyzed claw disorders based on data from routine claw trimming were generally low, with ranges of linear model estimates from 0.01 to 0.14, and threshold model estimates from 0.06 to 0.39. Estimated genetic correlations among claw disorders varied from -0.40 to 0.98. The strongest genetic correlations were found among sole hemorrhage (SH), sole ulcer (SU), and white line disease (WL), and between digital/interdigital dermatitis (DD/ID) and heel horn erosion (HHE). Genetic correlations between DD/ID and HHE on the one hand and SH, SU, or WL on the other hand were, in most cases, low. Although some of the studies were based on relatively few records and the estimated genetic parameters had large standard errors, there was, with some exceptions, consistency among studies. Various studies evaluate the potential of various data soureces for use in breeding. The use of hoof trimming data is recommended for maximization of genetic gain, although auxiliary traits, such as locomotion score and some conformation traits, may be valuable for increasing the reliability of genetic evaluations. Routine genetic evaluation of direct claw health has been implemented in the Netherlands (2010); Denmark, Finland, and Sweden (joint Nordic evaluation; 2011); and Norway (2014), and other countries plan to implement evaluations in the near future.

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Two lungworm outbreaks in dairy herds were investigated in order to estimate the resulting economic costs. On the two farms, with 110 and 95 cows, total costs were estimated at €159 and €167 per cow, respectively. Overall, milk production reduced by 15 to 20 per cent during the outbreaks. Five cows died on one farm, while on the other farm seven cows died as a result of the lungworm outbreak. On one farm, 51.7 per cent of the total costs was due to reduced milk production and 33.1 per cent was due to disposal of dead animals. On the other farm, it was 36.3 and 50.9 per cent, respectively. The remaining 13 to 15 per cent of the total costs were due to extra inseminations, laboratory diagnosis and treatments. The history and development of the outbreaks are described. One lesson from these outbreaks is that recognising that potentially lungworm-naïve animals are to be introduced into the adult herd allows for timely measures (for example, vaccination) to prevent a lungworm outbreak.