Aim: Macroecological analyses provide valuable insights into factors that influence how parasites are distributed across space and among hosts. Amid large uncertainties that arise when generalizing from local and regional findings, hierarchical approaches applied to global datasets are required to determine whether drivers of parasite infection patterns vary across scales. We assessed global patterns of haemosporidian infections across a broad diversity of avian host clades and zoogeographical realms to depict hotspots of prevalence and to identify possible underlying drivers.

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Animal populations often decline due to habitat disturbance, but the initial response of organisms to human-induced environmental change is usually behavioral. Intra- and inter-specific interactions can restrict or facilitate access to resources, resulting in changes to individual fitness, and resource depletion may affect the frequency and strength of interactions. In birds, it is often assumed that feeding in groups increases foraging efficiency. We assessed how the reduction of seed resources provoked by cattle grazing affected different properties of seed-eating bird flocks in woodlands having the same structural characteristics but differing in seed abundance. Under lower availability of grass seeds (i.e., under grazing), flocks were smaller and less rich and birds showed a lower flocking propensity. This pattern could be explained by three non-exclusive hypotheses. Food reduction caused by grazing (i) decreases the number of seed-eating birds and concomitantly generates smaller flocks; (ii) reduces the density of nuclear species, decreasing the group cohesion in large flocks; (iii) makes large flocks less attractive by increasing individual competence for food. Our results provide evidence that cattle grazing affect the interactions of seed-eating birds and suggest the importance of understanding flocking behavior to bring about management actions.