Modeling of urban watersheds is complicated by the complexities of the hydrologic system brought about by urbanization, model scale, and client diffusion. Modeling objectives vary widely, from storm sewer design to management of local runoff to river basin planning. Each objective requires a different approach to modeling. Current difficulties in modeling involve inherent nonlinearities in most methods of processing inputs for linear models, problems of storm definition, interconnection of urban catchment areas, and shortage of detailed rainfall-runoff water quality data for calibration. Despite handicaps, progress has been made in modeling urban watersheds and will continue to be made. LAND USE CHANGE The hydrologic system of a typical large sector of land prior to its urbanization is represented schematically in Figure 1. Complexities irhposed by urbanization can be appreciated by comparing Figure 2, an urban hydrologic system schematization, with its preurban counterpart, Figure 1 (American Society of Civil Engineers, unpublished data, 1972). (Hydrologic effects of changes in land and water use associated with the progressive stages of urbanization from 'preurban' to 'late urban' have been traced by Savini and Karometer [1961].) Figure 2 is a simplified summary of water quantities in the urban hydrologic system. (In Figure 2, 'water systems' is intended to include treatment and distribution facilities of public systems and self-supplied industrial process systems. Because only a small percentage of industrial cooling water is from groundwater sources, only surface water withdrawals and returns of this type are represented in Figure 2. Provision of flow detention storage for overland runoff is considered to be a part of 'storm drainage.' The term 'manipulated,' used twice in Figure 2, would include runoff management, such as occurs in the deliberate provision of local storage, of the 'urban land surface,' and recreation, transportation, flood control measures, and property value enhancement in connection with 'bodies of surface water.' Figure 2, and some connections/functions are not necessarily typical.) A representation of water quality aspects, which are not shown in Figure 2, would be still more complicated. Management of seawater intrusion is not included inThese two illustrations are shown here to give some indica-
A theoretical methodology is proposed to establish a relationship between the rainfall at a fixed point and the associated mean rainfall over a geographically fixed area. The distribution relation for mean rainfall over a specific area was derived using an exponential distribution function for hourly point rainfall. Values of the areal correction factor were estimated at equal levels of exceedance probability for point and areal mean rainfalls. Contrary to previous indications for a moving point, it was found that the areal correction factor for a fixed point and fixed area was not always equal to or less than unity. Furthermore, the areal correction factor was found to vary with the return period.
There are two basic ways in which equalizing storage can be used by the operator of a service district with a pumped supply. Either the storage is unregulated and “floats” on the system for an extended period of time, or the storage is replenished, perhaps once each day, by manipulating the pumping schedule. This article discusses a hypothetical system comprised of a single pumped sendout, a distribution network, a single elevated storage site, and a constant‐suction water level. The pump shutoff and design heads, the volume, and the total depth and height of elevated storage have been held constant. Essentially, the pump design capacity was investigated to determine the effect of its quantity on recoverability of equalizing storage. Two operating options were considered: full daily recovery of storage by using higher‐capacity pumps; and, full recovery over about half of the year using a lower‐capacity pump, permitting the storage to float on the system. In the example presented, the annual power cost for the former appears to be 8 per cent higher. The range of pumping rates is greater, and the volume of storage utilized is less, for the daily full‐recovery option.
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