Organic and inorganic mass spectrometries were used to investigate the biochemical response of mice (Mus musculus) to inorganic arsenic exposure using liver as the target organ. The toxicological effects of trivalent inorganic arsenic after oral administration (3 mg kg(-1) body weight and per day) were investigated over a period of 7 days using metallomics, metabonomics and redox proteomics approaches. Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with ICP-MS detection was combined with anion exchange chromatography (AEC) to characterize the biological response of the exposed mice. On the other hand, direct infusion mass spectrometry (DI-ESI-QTOF-MS) of polar and lipophilic extracts using positive and negative modes of acquisition (ESI+/ESI-) provided information about time-dependent changes in endogenous metabolites identified by Partial Least Square-Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA). Finally, the study has been complemented with the evaluation of up/down-regulation of enzymes related to oxidative stress such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT) and peroxidases in connection with metal toxicity issues. The results show that the inorganic arsenic methylation in the liver may reach the saturation point upon chronic exposure to the element. On the other hand, SEC-ICP-MS coupling provided information about metal containing-proteins and metabolites related to arsenic exposure (metallomics) which has been correlated with the changes in the global metabolism (metabonomics), also considering their consequences on the redox status of protein and protein expression (redox proteomics). Our study shows that arsenic causes biochemical pathway alterations, such as energy metabolism (e.g. glycolysis, Krebs cycle), amino acid metabolism, choline metabolism and degradation of membrane phospholipids (apoptosis). This work illustrates the high reliability of the integrated use of organic mass spectrometry for the metabonomic study of biochemical effects induced by As2O3, with inorganic mass spectrometry for metallomic and speciation assessment of arsenic biomethylation in the liver of exposed mice, and redox proteomics to evaluate inhibition of enzymatic activity in different proteins such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione reductase (GR) caused by this element. In conclusion, the integration of metallomics, metabolomics and redox proteomics results provides a more comprehensive evaluation about the biological response in experiments dealing with exposure to toxic metals.
The mechanism of arsenic toxicity still remains unclear, although enzymatic inhibition, impaired antioxidants metabolism and oxidative stress may play a role. The toxicological effects of trivalent inorganic arsenic on laboratory mouse Mus musculus after oral administration (3 mg/kg body weight/day) were investigated along 12 days, using a metabolomic approach based on direct infusion mass spectrometry to polar and lipophilic extracts from different organs and fluids (liver, kidney, and plasma). Positive and negative acquisition modes (ESI(+)/ESI(-)) were used throughout the experiments. The most significant endogenous metabolites affected by exposure were traced by partial least square-discriminant analysis and confirmed by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and gas chromatography coupled to MS. In this work, the toxic effect of arsenic has been related with important metabolic pathways, such as energy metabolism (e.g., glycolysis, Krebs cycle), amino acids metabolism, choline metabolism, methionine cycle, and degradation of membrane phospholipids (cell apoptosis). In addition, this work illustrates the high reliability of mass spectrometry based on a metabolomic approach to study the biochemical effects induced by metal exposure.
A metallomic approach based on the use of size-exclusion chromatography (Superdex-75) with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) detection is combined with anion or cation exchange chromatography to characterize the biological response of the free-living mouse Mus spretus. The approach has been applied to contaminated and non-contaminated areas from Doñana National Park (southwest Spain) and the surroundings. Several areas affected by differential contamination from mining, industrial, and agricultural activities have been considered. The high presence of Mn, Cu, and Zn in liver and As and Cd in kidney is remarkable, especially in contaminated areas. The size exclusion chromatograms traced by Mn in liver cytosolic extracts are more intense than in kidney; a Mn-peak matching with the standard of 32 kDa (superoxide dismutase) is present in these organs, and its intensity is correlated with the concentration of Mn in the extracts. High-intensity peaks traced by Cu, Zn, and Cd at 7 kDa (matching with metallothionein I standard) in liver extract are triggered by the presence of contaminants. Other peaks related with molecules of 32 and 67 kDa traced by Cu and Zn can also be observed, although their intensity is higher in sites with low contamination. In kidney extracts, the presence of a Cd-peak with Mr of 7 kDa (tentatively Cd-metallothionein) with high intensity under the action of contaminants was observed, but high biological responses are also proven in the protected area of the Park, which denotes a progressive increase of diffuse contamination.
The fact that the essential or toxic character of elements is species specific has encouraged the development of analytical strategies for chemical speciation over the last twenty years; indeed, there are now a great number of them that provide very good performance. However, biological systems are exposed to a complex environment in which species of elements can interact in a synergistic/antagonistic fashion. Thus, the metabolism of trace elements cannot be considered in isolation. On the other hand, biological systems are dynamic, so it is necessary to study the trafficking of species of elements between organs, tissues or cell compartments in order to decipher the biochemical processes of the interactions in which they are involved. Although the application of liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-based "metallomics" methods in combination with organic mass spectrometry can provide much-needed insight, new analytical strategies are required to really understand the role of species of elements in biological systems and the mechanisms of their interactions. In the present paper, the interactions of the most widely studied elements in this context (Se, Hg and As) are discussed, as well as other important interactions between different elements.
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