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Flashbulb memories (FBMs) are detailed recollections of the context in which people first heard about important events. The present study investigates three models of the formation and maintenance of FBM. Two models have previously been proposed in the literature (Brown & Kulik, 1977;Conway et al., 1994). A third model of FBM that integrates theories ofFBM and recent developments in the field of emotions is proposed. The present study compares these three competing models by investigating the FBMs that Belgian citizens developed upon learning of the unexpected death of their king Baudouin. Structural equation modeling revealed that, as compared to the two previously proposed models, the third model, which takes into account emotional processes, better explains FBM.People have detailed memories for circumstances surrounding their discovery of important national events, such as assassinations of public figures (see, e.g., Brown & Kulik, 1977;Christianson, 1989;Colegrove, 1899;Winograd & Killinger, 1983). They remember the specifics of the context in which they first heard about the news: When they heard the news, where they were, what they were doing and with whom, and how they felt upon hearing the news are just a few of the details commonly remembered (see, e.g., Brown & Kulik, 1977). Brown and Kulik called this phenomenon flashbulb memories (FBMs) to indicate surprise and brevity. Even though FBMs are not as accurate or as permanent as the photographic metaphor suggests (Larsen, 1992;Neisser & Harsh, 1992), their forgetResearch reported in this paper was supported by FRFC Grant 8.4510.94. from the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research and by a grant from the Fonds de Developpement Scientifique of the University of Louvain. It was also facilitated by the support granted by the Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Paris, to the Consortium for European Research on Emotion (CERE). We gratefully acknowledge the help of Denise Philippot, Philippe Tilquin, and Annick Beerten in collecting the data. We also wish to thank Geoffrey R. Loftus and two anonymous reviewers who provided invaluablecomments and suggestions on an earlier draft. O. L. is Research Assistant at the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research. A.E. is now at the Department of Psychology, University of Provence, Aix-en-Provence, France. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to C. Finkenauer, Department of Psychology, University of Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier, 10, B-1348 Louvain-Ia-Neuve, Belgium (e-mail: finkenauer@clis. ucl.ac.be).-Accepted by previous editor, Geoffrey R. Loftus ting curve is far less affected by time than in the case of other types of memories investigated in basic memory research (Bohannon & Symons, 1992;Christianson, 1989; McCloskey, Wible, & Cohen, 1988;Pillemer, 1984).FBMs are cases of autobiographical memories. Because it is well established that emotions have an important influence on autobiographical memory (see, e.g., Conway, 1990;Nigro & Neisser, 1983;Robinson, 1980), it is imperative to cons...

Research policy observers are increasingly concerned about the potential impact of current academic working conditions on mental health, particularly in PhD students. The aim of the current study is threefold. First, we assess the prevalence of mental health problems in a representative sample of PhD students in Flanders, Belgium (N=3659). Second, we compare PhD students to three other samples: (1) highly educated in the general population (N=769); (2) highly educated employees (N=592); and (3) higher education students (N=333). Third, we assess those organizational factors relating to the role of PhD students that predict mental health status. Results based on 12 mental health symptoms (GHQ-12) showed that 32% of PhD students are at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, especially depression. This estimate was significantly higher than those obtained in the comparison groups. Organizational policies were significantly associated with the prevalence of mental health problems. Especially work-family interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor’s leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.

BackgroundA domain-specific physical activity questionnaire (EHIS-PAQ) was developed in the framework of the second wave of the European Health Interview Survey (EHIS). This article presents the EHIS-PAQ and describes its development and evaluation processes.MethodsResearch institutes from Belgium, Estonia and Germany participated in the Improvement of the EHIS (ImpEHIS) Grant project issued by Eurostat. The instrument development process comprised a non-systematic literature review and a systematic HIS/HES database search for physical activity survey questions. The developed EHIS-PAQ proposal was reviewed by survey experts. Cognitive testing of the EHIS-PAQ was conducted in Estonia and Germany. The EHIS-PAQ was further tested in a pilot survey in Belgium, Estonia and Germany in different modes of data collection, face-to-face paper and pencil interview (PAPI) and computer assisted telephone interview (CATI).ResultsThe EHIS-PAQ is a rather pragmatic tool aiming to evaluate how far the population is physically active in specific public health relevant settings. It assesses work-related, transport-related and leisure-time physical activity in a typical week. Cognitive testing revealed that the EHIS-PAQ worked as intended. The pilot testing showed the feasibility of using the EHIS-PAQ in an international health interview survey setting in Europe. It will be implemented in all 28 European Union Member States via European Union implementing regulation in the period between 2013 and 2015. This will be a first opportunity to get comparable data on domain-specific physical activity in all 28 EU MS and to publish indicators at the EU level.ConclusionsThe EHIS-PAQ is a short, domain-specific PA questionnaire based on PA questions which have been used in large-scale health interview surveys before. It was designed by considering the respondents’ perspective in answering PA questions.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13690-015-0110-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Flashbulb memories are vivid and long-lasting memories for the reception context of an important public event (Brown & Kulik, 1977). They are assumed to be triggered by emotional factors (i.e., intensity of emotional feeling, appraisal of the original event) and by social factors (i.e., social sharing of the news, following media debate about the event). The present study investigated the memory for the death of the former President of France F. Mitterrand in two social groups, i.e., French and Belgian people. This study tests whether the flashbulb memory attributes, the memory for the original event, and the impact of the emotional and social determinants of flashbulb memory differed across groups. The results indicated that the flashbulb memory for Mitterrand's death is affected by group provenance, as French people showed higher levels of recall for the flashbulb memory attributes and their determinants than Belgian people. Time impaired recollections in both groups, so that flashbulb memories appear prone to decay and share the same destiny as ordinary memories. The theoretical construct of concern--as the most basic antecedent of emotional experiences and its related appraisal (Frijda, 1994)--is discussed in order to explain the differences in memory of the two social groups.

BackgroundThe Belgian Health Interview Survey (BHIS) is organised every 4 to 5 years and collects health information from around 10,000 individuals in a face-to-face setting. This manuscript describes the methodological choices made in the sampling design, the outcomes of the previous surveys in terms of participation rates and achieved targets and the factors to be accounted for in data-analysis.MethodsThe BHIS targets all persons residing in Belgium with no restrictions on age or nationality. Trimestral copies of the National Population Registry are used as the sampling frame. To select the respondents, a multistage sampling design is applied involving a geographical stratification, a selection of clusters, a selection of households within each cluster and a selection of respondents within each household. Using matched substitution of non-participating households assures the realisation of the predefined net-sample.ResultsFor each BHIS the required number of participants is achieved, including the years when an oversampling of provinces and of the elderly occurred. The sampling design guarantees that the survey is implemented in large cities as well as in small municipalities. A growing problem is related to the sampling frame: it is increasingly subject of deterioration, especially in the Brussels-Capital Region.ConclusionsThe methodological approach developed for the first BHIS proves to be accurate and was kept nearly unchanged throughout the following surveys. Fieldwork substitution contributes to a considerable extent to the success of the fieldwork but yields in higher percentages of non-participation. The sampling design requires special attention when analysing the data: the unequal selection probability, e.g. due to the non-proportional stratification at the regional level, necessitates the use of weights. The BHIS is progressively embedded in the European Health Survey, a process that doesn’t jeopardise the comparability of the Belgian results throughout time.

Background In Belgium, confinement measures were introduced on the 13th of March 2020 to curb the spread of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). These measures may affect health behaviours of the population such as eating habits, physical activity and alcohol consumption, which in turn can lead to weight gain resulting in overweight and obesity, increasing the risk of several chronic diseases, but also of severe COVID-19. The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of confinement measures on health behaviours and their associations with weight gain. Methods Data were derived from the second national COVID-19 health survey. Data were collected between the 16th and the 23rd of April 2020. The recruitment of participants was based on snowball sampling via Sciensano’s website, invitations via e-mail and social media. The study sample includes participants aged 18 years and over with no missing data on the variables of interest (n = 28,029). The association between self-reported weight gain and health behaviour changes, adjusted for gender, age group and household composition was assessed through OR’s (95% CI) calculated with logistic regression models, using post-stratification weights. Results Overall, 28.6% reported weight gain after 6 weeks of confinement. Higher odds of weight gain were observed among participants who increased or decreased their consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (OR = 1.39 (1.15–1.68) and 1.29 (1.04–1.60), respectively), among those who increased their consumption of sweet or salty snacks (OR = 3.65 (3.27–4.07)), among those who became less physically active (OR = 1.91 (1.71–2.13)), and among those who increased their alcohol consumption (OR = 1.86 (1.66–2.08)). Conclusions The most important correlates of weight gain during confinement were an increased consumption of sweet or salty snacks and being less physically active. These findings confirm the impact of diet and exercise on short term weight gain and plead to take more action, in supporting people to achieve healthier behaviours in order to tackle overweight and obesity, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The link between mental health and use of anxiolytics differs by gender. Some indications exist for gender differences in inappropriate use of anxiolytics, whereas this does not hold true for the use of antidepressants. Further efforts are needed to increase the awareness of prescribers, policy makers, and the general public on the appropriate use of anxiolytics, especially among women and in the older population.