Termites encounter a diverse array of potentially useful and harmful fungi in their subterranean habitats. These vary from symbiotic to harmful species with varying levels of virulence. How these hemiedaphic insects survive in habitats with infective fungi is not well understood. Possible mediation of olfactory signals in avoiding contact with entomopathogenic fungi has been explored by a number of workers. In the present study, we initially found that Macrotermes michaelseni detected a virulent isolate of Metarhizium anisopliae from some distance and avoided direct physical contact. We hypothesized that there may be a relationship between virulence and repellency of different isolates of M. anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana to the termite. We compared these for selected isolates of the two fungi. Positive correlations between the two parameters for both sets of isolates of the fungi were obtained. The results show an interesting co-evolutionary phenomenon in which the termite's response to either M. anisopliae or B. bassiana is directly related to potential harm these fungi can inflict on the insect and that the virulent strains are more likely to be recognized from some distance and avoided.

BackgroundIncreases in the proportion of facility-based deliveries have been marginal in many low-income countries in the African region. Preliminary clinical and anthropological evidence suggests that one major factor inhibiting pregnant women from delivering at facility is disrespectful and abusive treatment by health care providers in maternity units. Despite acknowledgement of this behavior by policy makers, program staff, civil society groups and community members, the problem appears to be widespread but prevalence is not well documented. Formative research will be undertaken to test the reliability and validity of a disrespect and abuse (D&A) construct and to then measure the prevalence of disrespect and abuse suffered by clinic clients and the general population.Methods/designA quasi-experimental design will be followed with surveys at twelve health facilities in four districts and one large maternity hospital in Nairobi and areas before and after the introduction of disrespect and abuse (D&A) interventions. The design is aimed to control for potential time dependent confounding on observed factors.DiscussionThis study seeks to conduct implementation research aimed at designing, testing, and evaluating an approach to significantly reduce disrespectful and abusive (D&A) care of women during labor and delivery in facilities. Specifically the proposed study aims to: (i) determine the manifestations, types and prevalence of D&A in childbirth (ii) develop and validate tools for assessing D&A (iii) identify and explore the potential drivers of D&A (iv) design, implement, monitor and evaluate the impact of one or more interventions to reduce D&A and (v) document and assess the dynamics of implementing interventions to reduce D&A and generate lessons for replication at scale.

We investigated conspecific and heterospecific oviposition host discrimination among four economically important fruit fly pests of mango in Africa (Ceratitis capitata, Wiedemann; C. fasciventris, Bezzi; C. rosa, Karsch, and C. cosyra, Walker) with regard to host-marking behavior and fecal matter aqueous solutions. The objective of the study was to get insight into the potential of managing these pests using the host-marking technique. Observations were done on mango slices marked by the flies and treated with aqueous solutions of fecal matter of the flies, respectively. In both host-marking and fecal matter experiments, C. cosyra, which is the most destructive species of the four on mango, was exceptional. It only discriminated against hosts treated with its fecal matter but with lower sensitivity while C. capitata and C.fasciventris discriminated against hosts marked by it or treated with its fecal matter and with higher sensitivity. Our results provide evidence for potential of managing some of the major fruit fly species infesting mango in Africa using the host-marking pheromone of the mango fruit fly, C. cosyra.

The performance of an autoinoculation device was evaluated in field cage experiments for control of Western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), in French bean, Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Samantha (Fabaceae). Treatments consisted of a fungus‐treated device with and without semiochemical (Lurem‐TR), and a fungus‐free device as control; the fungus used was Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae). The overall mean number of conidia acquired by a single insect was higher in the fungus‐treated semiochemical‐baited device than in the device without semiochemical: 5.0 ± 0.6 × 104 vs. 2.2 ± 0.4 × 104 conidia per insect. The overall thrips mortality was also higher in the semiochemical‐baited device than in the device without the semiochemical: 59.3 ± 3.9 vs. 41.7 ± 3.5%. Conidial viability was not affected in the M. anisopliae‐treated device without semiochemicals, 7 days after treatment, whereas it was considerably decreased – from 81.0 ± 1.3 to 6.5 ± 1.1%, 2 and 7 days post‐inoculation – in the M. anisopliae‐treated semiochemical‐baited device. Thrips mortality was positively correlated with M. anisopliae conidial viability, and conidial viability was negatively correlated with conidial acquisition. This suggests that the semiochemical volatiles reduced the conidial viability, which in turn resulted in significant reduction in thrips mortality, despite the highest conidial acquisition in the semiochemical‐baited fungus‐treated device. Thrips density per plant was significantly reduced in both fungus‐treated treatments (with semiochemical: 8.7 ± 1.7 adults per plant; without semiochemical: 6.6 ± 1.4 adults per plant) compared with the fungus‐free control (19.8 ± 2.6 adults per plant). These results demonstrate the potential for an autoinoculation device strategy for the control of thrips, particularly in screenhouses.

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