Background Several mutations in voltage gated sodium channel (NaV) have been identified in Aedes aegypti populations worldwide. However, only few are related to knockdown resistance to pyrethroids, most of which with variations in the 1016 and 1534 NaV sites. In Brazil, at least two NaV alleles are known: NaVR1, with a substitution in the 1534 (1016 Val+ + 1534 Ilekdr) and NaVR2, with substitutions in both 1016 and sites (1016Ilekdr + 1534Cyskdr). There is also the duplication in the NaV gene, with one copy carrying the substitution Ile1011Met, although its effects on pyrethroid resistance remain to be clarified. Our goals in this study were (1) to determine the role of each kdr NaV allele and the duplication on pyrethroid resistance and (2) to screen the frequency of the kdr alleles in 27 several natural Ae. aegypti populations from the metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro. Methods Pyrethroid resistance was evaluated by a knockdown time (KdT) assay, an adaptation of the WHO test tubes with paper impregnated with deltamethrin. We used laboratory-selected Ae. aegypti lineages: R1R1 and R2R2 (homozygous for the kdr NaVR1 and NaVR2 alleles, respectively), Dup (with duplication in the NaV gene), Rockefeller (the susceptibility reference control), and F1 hybrids among them. Genotyping of both 1016 and 1534 NaV sites was performed in 811 Ae. aegypti sampled from 27 localities from Rio de Janeiro (17), Niterói (6) and Nova Iguaçu (4) cities, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, with a TaqMan real time PCR approach. Results The laboratory lineages R1R1, R2R2, and R1R2 were the only ones that needed more than 60 minutes to knock down all the insects exposed to the pyrethroid, being the KdT R2R2 > R1R2 > R1R1, corroborating the recessive nature of the kdr mutations. Frequency of kdr alleles NaVR1 and NaVR2 in field-caught mosquitoes varied from 0 to 52% and 43 to 86%, respectively, evidencing high levels of “resistant genotypes” (R1R1, R1R2, and R2R2), which together summed 60 to 100% in Ae. aegypti populations from Rio de Janeiro. Conclusions The NaVR1 and NaVR2 kdr alleles confer resistance to the pyrethroid deltamethrin in homozygotes and R1R2 heterozygotes, being the R2R2 most resistant genotype. The allele containing duplication in the NaV gene, with a mutation in the 1011 site, did not confer resistance under the tested conditions. The frequencies of the “resistant genotypes” are elevated in Ae. aegypti natural populations from Rio de Janeiro.

Production and degradation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are extensively regulated to ensure proper cellular responses to various environmental stimuli and stresses. Moreover, physiologically generated ROS function as secondary messengers that can influence tissue homeostasis. The cap'n'collar transcription factor known as nuclear factor erythroid-derived factor 2 (Nrf2) coordinates an evolutionarily conserved transcriptional activation pathway that mediates antioxidant and detoxification responses in many animal species, including insects and mammals. Here, we show that Nrf2-mediated signaling affects embryo survival, midgut homeostasis, and redox biology in , a mosquito species vector of dengue, Zika, and other disease-causing viruses. We observed that AeNrf2 silencing increases ROS levels and stimulates intestinal stem cell proliferation. Because ROS production is a major aspect of innate immunity in mosquito gut, we found that a decrease in Nrf2 signaling results in reduced microbiota growth and Zika virus infection. Moreover, we provide evidence that AeNrf2 signaling also controls transcriptional adaptation of to insecticide challenge. Therefore, we conclude that Nrf2-mediated response regulates assorted gene clusters in that determine cellular and midgut redox balance, affecting overall xenobiotic resistance and vectorial adaptation of the mosquito.

Insecticide resistant Aedes populations have recently been reported in Pakistan, imposing a threat to their control. We aimed to evaluate the susceptibility of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus populations from Lahore to WHO-recommended insecticides and to investigate metabolic and target-site resistance mechanisms. For this purpose, we first carried out bioassays with the larvicides temephos and pyriproxyfen, and the adulticides malathion, permethrin, deltamethrin, alpha-cypermethrin, and etofenprox. We looked for Knockdown resistance mutations (kdr) by qPCR, High-Resolution Melt (HRM), and sequencing. In order to explore the role of detoxifying enzymes in resistance, we carried out synergist bioassay with both species and then checked the expression of CYP9M6, CYP9J10, CYP9J28, CYP6BB2, CCAe3a, and SAP2 genes in Ae. aegypti. Both species were susceptible to organophosphates and the insect growth regulator, however resistant to all pyrethroids. We are reporting the kdr haplotypes 1520Ile + 1534Cys and T1520 + 1534Cys in high frequencies in Ae. aegypti while Ae. albopictus only exhibited the alteration L882M. PBO increased the sensitivity to permethrin in Ae. aegypti, suggesting the participation of P450 genes in conferring resistance, and indeed, CYP928 was highly expressed. We presume that dengue vectors in Lahore city are resistant to pyrethroids, probably due to multiple mechanisms, such as kdr mutations and P450 overexpression.

Vector control largely relies on neurotoxic chemicals, and insecticide resistance (IR) directly threatens their effectiveness. In some cases, specific alleles cause IR, and knowledge of the genetic diversity and gene flow among mosquito populations is crucial to track their arrival, rise, and spread. Here we evaluated Aedes aegypti populations’ susceptibility status, collected in 2016 from six different municipalities of Rio de Janeiro state (RJ), to temephos, pyriproxyfen, malathion, and deltamethrin. We collected eggs of Ae. aegypti in Campos dos Goytacazes (Cgy), Itaperuna (Ipn), Iguaba Grande (Igg), Itaboraí (Ibr), Mangaratiba (Mgr), and Vassouras (Vsr). We followed the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines and investigated the degree of susceptibility/resistance of mosquitoes to these insecticides. We used the Rockefeller strain as a susceptible positive control. We genotyped the V1016I and F1534C knockdown resistance (kdr) alleles using qPCR TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. Besides, with the use of Ae. aegypti SNP-chip, we performed genomic population analyses by genotyping more than 15,000 biallelic SNPs in mosquitoes from each population. We added previous data from populations from other countries to evaluate the ancestry of RJ populations. All RJ Ae. aegypti populations were susceptible to pyriproxyfen and malathion and highly resistant to deltamethrin. The resistance ratios for temephos was below 3,0 in Cgy, Ibr, and Igg populations, representing the lowest rates since IR monitoring started in this Brazilian region. We found the kdr alleles in high frequencies in all populations, partially justifying the observed resistance to pyrethroid. Population genetics analysis showed that Ae. aegypti revealed potential higher migration among some RJ localities and low genetic structure for most of them. Future population genetic studies, together with IR data in Ae aegypti on a broader scale, can help us predict the gene flow within and among the Brazilian States, allowing us to track the dynamics of arrival and changes in the frequency of IR alleles, providing critical information to improving vector control program.

Background Roraima, the northernmost State in Brazil, borders Venezuela and Guyana. Although mostly covered by the tropical forests, the urban centers of this state are highly infested with Ae. aegypti and are endemic for dengue, Zika and chikungunya. We accessed the insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from the capital Boa Vista, two cities on international borders (Pacaraima and Bonfim) and Rorainópolis bordering Amazonas State, in order to evaluate the chemical control efficacy in these localities. Methods Tests with World Health Organization (WHO)-like tubes impregnated with the pyrethroid deltamethrin (0.05% and 0.12%) and the organophosphate malathion (0.7%) were conducted with Ae. aegypti from Boa Vista, Pacaraima, Bonfim and Rorainópolis, collected in 2016 and 2018. Genotyping of kdr mutations, related to resistance to pyrethroids, was performed for the SNP variations at sites 1016 and 1534 of the voltage gated sodium channel gene (NaV) with a TaqMan qPCR approach. Results Aedes albopictus was absent in our collections, and therefore only Ae. aegypti was tested. All Ae. aegypti populations were susceptible to 0.7% malathion in 2016; however, mortality dropped to under 90% in Bonfim and Pacaraima populations in 2018. All populations were resistant to 0.05% deltamethrin in both years. The time that 50% of females suffered knockdown (KdT50) under exposure to 0.05% deltamethrin was 3.3–5.9-fold longer in mosquitoes from the natural populations compared to the susceptible Rockefeller strain. Only the Pacaraima population (2018) remained resistant to 0.12% deltamethrin. Kdr genotyping revealed the absence of the wild-type NaVS haplotype (1016Val + 1534Phe) in the populations from Roraima, indicating that all tested insects had a genetic background for pyrethroid resistance. The double kdr NaVR2 haplotype (1016Ile + 15434Cys) was present in higher frequencies in all populations except for Rorainópolis, where this haplotype seems to have arrived recently. Conclusions These results are important for the knowledge about insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from Roraima and will help improve vector control strategies that may be applied to diverse localities under similar geographical and urban conditions.

Background. Roraima, the northernmost State in Brazil, borders Venezuela and Guyana. Although mostly covered by the tropical forests, the urban centers of this State are highly infested with Ae. aegypti and endemic for dengue, Zika and chikungunya. Herein we present the levels of Ae. aegypti infestation and number of arboviruses cases between 2015 and 2018 in the studied localities. We accessed the insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from the capital Boa Vista, two cities on international borders (Pacaraima and Bonfim) and Rorainópolis bordering Amazonas State, in order to evaluate the chemical control efficacy in these localities. Methods. Tests with World Health Organization (WHO)-like tubes impregnated with the pyrethroid deltamethrin (0.05 and 0.12%) and the organophosphate malathion (0.7%) were conducted with Ae. aegypti from Boa Vista, Pacaraima, Bonfim and Rorainópolis, collected in 2016 and 2018. Genotyping of kdr mutations, related to resistance to pyrethroids, was performed for the SNP variations in the sites 1016 and 1534 of the voltage gated sodium channel gene (NaV) with a TaqMan qPCR approach. Results. Ae. albopictus was absent in our collections, and therefore only Ae. aegypti was tested. All Ae. aegypti populations were susceptible to 0.7% malathion in 2016, however mortality dropped to under 90% in Bonfim and Pacaraima populations in 2018. All populations were resistant to 0.05% deltamethrin in both years. The time that 50% of females suffered knockdown (KdT50) under exposition to 0.05% deltamethrin was 3.3-5.9 fold longer in mosquitoes from the populations compared to the susceptible strain Rockefeller. Only Pacaraima population (2018) remained resistant to 0.12% deltamethrin. The kdr genotyping revealed the absence of the wild-type NaVS haplotype (1016Val + 1534Phe) in the populations from Roraima, signifying that all tested insects had a genetic background for pyrethroid resistance. The double kdr NaVR2 haplotype (1016Ile + 15434Cys) was present in higher frequencies in all populations except Rorainópolis, where this haplotype seems to have arrived recently. Conclusions. These results are important for the knowledge about insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from Roraima and will help to improve vector control strategies that may be applied to diverse localities under similar geographical and urban conditions.

Background Roraima is the northernmost State in Brazil and makes international borders with Venezuela and Guyana. Although mostly covered by the tropical forests, the urban centers are highly infested with Ae. aegypti and endemic for dengue, Zika and chikungunya. Here we presented the levels of Ae. aegypti infestation and number of arboviruses cases between 2015 and 2018 in the studied localities. We evaluated the insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from the capital Boa Vista, two cities in international borders: Pacaraima and Bonfim, and Rorainópolis in the limit with Amazonas State, collected in 2016 and 2018. Methods WHO like tube tests with the pyrethroid deltamethrin (0.05 and 0.12%) and the organophosphate malathion (0.7%) were conducted. Genotyping of kdr mutations, related to resistance to pyrethroids, were performed for the SNP variations in the sites 1016 and 1534 of the voltage gated sodium channel gene (Na V ) with a TaqMan qPCR approach. Results Only Ae. aegypti was present in our collection, meaning that there is still a barrier that Ae. albopictus was still not able to transpose from Amazonas toward Roraima. All Ae. aegypti populations were susceptible to 0.7% malathion in 2016, however mortality dropped to under 90% in Bonfim and Pacaraima in 2018. All populations were resistant to 0.5% deltamethrin in both years. The time that 50% of females suffered knockdown ( Kd T 50 ) under exposition to 0.5% deltamethrin was 3.3-5.9 fold longer in mosquitoes from the populations compared to Rockefeller. Only Pacaraima (2018) remained resistant to 0.12% deltamethrin. The kdr genotyping revealed the absence of the wild-type Na V S haplotype (1016Val + 1534Phe) in populations from Roraima, meaning that all tested individuals had a genetic background for resistance to pyrethroid. The double kdr Na V R2 haplotype (1016Ile + 15434Cys) was under higher frequencies in all populations except Rorainópolis, where this haplotype seems to have arrived recently. Conclusions These results are important to the knowledge about insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from Roraima and will help to improve vector control strategies that may be applied to diverse localities with similar conditions.

Background. Roraima, the northernmost State in Brazil, borders Venezuela and Guyana. Although mostly covered by the tropical forests, the urban centers of this State are highly infested with Ae. aegypti and endemic for dengue, Zika and chikungunya. Herein we present the levels of Ae. aegypti infestation and number of arboviruses cases between 2015 and 2018 in the studied localities. We accessed the insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from the capital Boa Vista, two cities on international borders (Pacaraima and Bonfim) and Rorainópolis bordering Amazonas State, in order to evaluate the chemical control efficacy in these localities. Methods. Tests with World Health Organization (WHO)-like tubes impregnated with the pyrethroid deltamethrin (0.05 and 0.12%) and the organophosphate malathion (0.7%) were conducted with Ae. aegypti from Boa Vista, Pacaraima, Bonfim and Rorainópolis, collected in 2016 and 2018. Genotyping of kdr mutations, related to resistance to pyrethroids, was performed for the SNP variations in the sites 1016 and 1534 of the voltage gated sodium channel gene (NaV) with a TaqMan qPCR approach. Results. Ae. albopictus was absent in our collections, and therefore only Ae. aegypti was tested. All Ae. aegypti populations were susceptible to 0.7% malathion in 2016, however mortality dropped to under 90% in Bonfim and Pacaraima populations in 2018. All populations were resistant to 0.05% deltamethrin in both years. The time that 50% of females suffered knockdown (KdT50) under exposition to 0.05% deltamethrin was 3.3-5.9 fold longer in mosquitoes from the populations compared to the susceptible strain Rockefeller. Only Pacaraima population (2018) remained resistant to 0.12% deltamethrin. The kdr genotyping revealed the absence of the wild-type NaVS haplotype (1016Val + 1534Phe) in the populations from Roraima, signifying that all tested insects had a genetic background for pyrethroid resistance. The double kdr NaVR2 haplotype (1016Ile + 15434Cys) was present in higher frequencies in all populations except Rorainópolis, where this haplotype seems to have arrived recently. Conclusions. These results are important for the knowledge about insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti populations from Roraima and will help to improve vector control strategies that may be applied to diverse localities under similar geographical and urban conditions.