Using a regionally focused national survey of parents with 4–6-month-olds (N = 2, 250), we addressed associations between musical experience and the frequency and content of playing music and singing for infants. The possible mediation of a classical CD distribution to new parents in hospitals was also investigated. Five variables of experience were considered: (1) respondents' recollections of their mother or (2) father singing to them, (3) playing an instrument, (4) singing in a choir, and (5) taking music lessons. Chi-square analyses indicated that musical experience was highly associated with increased frequency of playing and singing. The content of what was played and sung was less uniformly linked, and revealed individual profiles for each mode of formal experience. Differences were found between those who did and those who did not receive the CD. Results support a systems view of the child in the context of families and society, and have implications about indirect effects of music education.

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Flow experience is an optimal state determined by an individual's perception of high skill and high challenge for a given task. In this study, young children's flow experience is examined in four naturally occurring music learning environments: infants and two-year-olds in childcare settings, and school-age children in Suzuki violin and Dalcroze classes. Descriptive observations of challenge-seeking, challenge-monitoring, and social context indicators previously used in flow analyses in four-to five-year-old children provided evidence that these indicators also function beyond that age group with varying degrees of intensity and frequency. Key findings included an age-related increase in observed self-assignment, which was observed to decline in children of school age. Additional findings include the accessibility and responses to musical structure for infants and toddlers, the role of gesture in helping children focus, the salience of adult awareness and the changing roles of peers across development.

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This article addresses tjpes and functions of singingpractices in 10 families with 3-jear-old children living in Arm Yolk CiQ, with illustrative cases of three families. Initial intmieurs were held with the parents in the families' homes. Between the initial visit and ( I followup visit 2-3 weeks l u t q parents observed their children and kept journals describing their engagement in music activitj. Transrripts of interviews fmm each visit, jield notes, and parent journals were reviewed for euidence of singing practices. Anabses revealed families used singing to "make special routine activities and to create and maintain traditions. Parent and researcher observations of children% musical play were characterized by singing. Possible t m d s were suggested around learned song and spontaneous song. Implications for teaching and learning are considered in terms of what educators might learn from observations of both children 5 spontaneous play a n d j v t n musical parenting.Expressive, nonverbal vocalizations are the among the first ways that human beings relate to one another. The reciprocal, lyrical communications behveen parent and child provide a context for healthy development (Field, 1998) and seem to be universal across cultures (Papousek, 1996). Another universal phenomenon is the singing of lullabies and play songs to infants and young children (Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995), although text and methods of delivery vary behveen cultures (Lopez, 1992;Garfias, 1990). These differences include who might do the singing-mother, father, grandparent, s i b ling-and how accompanying movement, relationship to ritual, and location in time, place, and physical proximity to others figure into the experience.Recent research in music education indicates a growing interest in the family as an influential context. Studies include investigationsThe author would like to acknowledge the Grammy Foundation and the Office of Community and Diversity, Teachen College, Columbia University, for their funding of this research, and the contributions of Elissa Johnson-Green, Urmi Chakrabarti. Kate Larson, and Faye Timmer for their assistance with data collection and analyses. Lori A. Custodero is an associate professor of music and music education at Teachers College. Columbia University.