Although women appear to be more vulnerable to alcohol-induced pathophysiology than men, the neurobiological basis for sex differences is largely unknown, partially because most studies on alcohol drinking are conducted in male subjects only. The present study examined sex differences in alcohol consumption in two rat strains, Long Evans and Wistar, using multiple behavioral paradigms. The effects of the estrous cycle on alcohol consumption were monitored throughout the study. The results indicated that females drank more alcohol than males when given either continuous or intermittent access to alcohol (vs. water) in their home cages (voluntary drinking). Under operant conditions, no sex or strain differences were found in drinking prior to development of alcohol dependence. However, upon dependence induction by chronic, intermittent alcohol vapor exposure, Wistar rats of both sexes substantially escalated their alcohol intake compared with their nondependent drinking levels, whereas Long Evans rats only exhibited a moderate escalation of drinking. Under these conditions, the estrous cycle had no effect on alcohol drinking in any strain and drinking model. Thus, strain, sex, and drinking conditions interact to modulate nondependent and dependent alcohol drinking. The present results emphasize the importance of including sex and strain as biological variables in exploring individual differences in alcohol drinking and dependence.
BACKGROUND: Proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy is commonly initiated in hospitals for a variety of reasons including stress ulcer prophylaxis. Outpatient use of inpatient-initiated PPI use may be medically unwarranted.
Drawing on the Mintzbergian perspective of strategy formation and strategy as practice literature we explore management controls (MCs) and comprehensiveness as antecedents to how strategy materializes in volatile environments. We focus on middle managers (MMs) since their role in strategy formation is well acknowledged. We contribute to the literature by arguing that MCs are central to strategy formation due to their role in shaping emergence of strategy and supporting implementation of deliberate strategies, with formal (process and output) and informal (professional) controls being salient micro-mechanisms in how strategy materializes in volatile environments. Specifically we argue that process control may hamper the materialization of strategy but that output and professional control aid it. We also develop the literature by arguing that comprehensiveness embeds both formally planned and emergent aspects in strategy formation, the latter enabled by top management championing and information availability which shapes MMs' predisposition to strategizing. With a quantitative study we test our hypotheses regarding championing, information availability and comprehensiveness; and comprehensiveness, and MCs and implementation performance. Our results show that comprehensiveness, output and professional controls positively influence MMs' implementation performance and, together, our antecedents reinforce each other in the materialization of strategy, hence providing an empirical contribution to the literature.
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