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The role of wheat, and particularly of gluten protein, in our diet has recently been scrutinized. This article provides a summary of the main pathologies related to wheat in the human body, including celiac disease, wheat allergy, nonceliac wheat sensitivity, fructose malabsorption, and irritable bowel syndrome. Differences in reactivity are discussed for ancient, heritage, and modern wheats. Due to large variability among species and genotypes, it might be feasible to select wheat varieties with lower amounts and fewer types of reactive prolamins and fructans. Einkorn is promising for producing fewer immunotoxic effects in a number of celiac research studies. Additionally, the impact of wheat processing methods on wheat sensitivity is reviewed. Research indicates that germination and fermentation technologies can effectively alter certain immunoreactive components. For individuals with wheat sensitivity, less-reactive wheat products can slow down disease development and improve quality of life. While research has not proven causation in the increase in wheat sensitivity over the last decades, modern wheat processing may have increased exposure to immunoreactive compounds. More research is necessary to understand the influence of modern wheat cultivars on epidemiological change.

EAGESTAD INRACover crops play an important role in agricultural sustainability. Unlike commodity cash crops, however, there has been relatively little cover crop breeding research and development. We conducted an online survey to evaluate: (a) the perspectives of organic and conventional farmers in the USA who use cover crops and (b) the specific cover crop traits that are important to farmers. We recruited participants from both organic and conventional agriculture networks and 69% of respondents reported that they farmed organic land. In addition to demographic data and information on management practices, we quantified farmer perspectives on four winter annual cover crops: (1) Austrian winter pea, (2) crimson clover, (3) hairy vetch and (4) cereal rye. Overall, respondents represented a wide range of states, farm sizes, plant hardiness zones and cash crops produced. Of the 417 full responses received, 87% of respondents reported that they used cover crops. The maximum amount farmers were willing to spend on cover crop seed varied by farmer type: 1% of conventional farmers versus 19% of organic farmers were willing to spend over US$185 ha−1 (US$75 acre−1). Organic and conventional farmers differed in terms of the reasons why they grew cover crops, with organic farmers placing greater value on the ecosystem services from cover crops. More organic (63%) than conventional (51%) farmers agreed that participatory breeding was important for cover crop variety development (P = 0.047). Both groups shared strong support for cover crop research and considered many of the same traits to be important for breeding. For the legume cover crops, nitrogen fixation was considered the most important trait, whereas winter hardiness, early vigor, biomass production and weed suppression were the most important traits for cereal rye. Our results illustrate common interests as well as differences in the perspectives between organic and conventional farmers on cover crops and can be used to inform nascent cover crop breeding efforts

Seed dormancy complicates the agricultural use of many legume species. Understanding the genetic and environmental drivers of seed dormancy is necessary for advancing crop improvement for legumes, such as Vicia villosa. In this study, we quantify the magnitude of genetic and environmental effects on physical dormancy among 1488 maternal V. villosa plants from 18 diverse environments. Furthermore, we explore the relationship between physical dormancy and environmental conditions during seed development. Additive genetic variance (h2) accounted for 40% of the variance, while the growing environment explained 28% of the variance in physical dormancy. Maternal lines showed complete variance in physical dormancy, as one line was 100% dormant, and 56 lines were 0% dormant. Distributions of physical dormancy varied widely among seed production environments, with some site-years strongly skewed toward physically dormant seed, while other site-years exhibited little dormant seed. Twenty-three weather variables were associated with environmental and error effects of physical dormancy. High mean and minimum relative humidity, low mean and maximum temperature, and high precipitation weakly grouped with low physical dormancy. Weather variables calculated from fixed time windows approximating seed maturity to seed harvest at each site-year tended to be less predictive than biological seed drying windows calculated based on seed maturity of each maternal line. Overall, individual and cumulative effects of weather variables were poor predictors of physical dormancy. Moderate heritability indicates that breeding programs can select against physical dormancy and improve V. villosa for agricultural use. Marker-based approaches would maximize selection for physical dormancy by reducing the influence of unpredictable environmental effects.

Identifying varieties best suited to local food systems requires a comprehensive understanding of varietal performance from field to fork. After conducting four years of field trials to test which varieties of ancient, heritage, and modern wheat grow best on organically managed land, we screened a subset of varieties for bread, pastry, pasta, and cooked grain quality. The varieties evaluated were three lines of emmer (T. turgidum L. ssp. dicoccum Schrank ex Schübl) and eleven lines of common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), including two modern soft wheat varieties, four soft heritage wheat varieties, four hard modern wheat varieties, and one hard heritage wheat variety. A diverse group of bakers, chefs, researchers, and consumers compared varieties for qualities of interest to regional markets. Participants assessed differences in sensory profiles, pasta making ability, and baking quality for sourdough, matzah crackers, yeast bread, and shortbread cookies. In addition to detecting significant differences among varieties for pasta, sourdough, and pastry quality, participants documented variation in texture and flavor for the evaluated products. By demonstrating which varieties perform best in the field, in the bakery, and on our taste buds, these results can support recommendations that strengthen the revival of local grain economies. Schrank ex Schubl). The baking quality of heritage wheat varieties, however, are poorly documented. Moreover, few scientific studies have compared the sensory attributes of different varieties of heritage, ancient, and modern wheat. Vindras-Fouillet et al. (2014) found significant differences in artisanal baking and sensory quality among eight farmer-selected wheat populations and one modern variety in France. Similarly, four varieties demonstrated different texture and appearance when baked into wholemeal bread in Germany (Ploeger et al., 2008). Starr et al. (2013) also documented significant differences in texture, appearance, aroma, and flavor of cooked grain from 20 wheat varieties grown in Northern Europe. None of the varieties assessed in these studies, however, are commonly grown in the United States. To inform local markets of the United States, this study compared varieties of organically grown heritage, modern, and ancient wheat for whole-grain technical parameters, artisanal bread baking, pasta making, pastry quality, and sensory attributes. Materials and methods Field methodsTo identify varieties that may be best suited to organic production in the northeastern and northcentral United States, we evaluated 40 winter wheat, 24 spring wheat, and 16 spring emmer entries over four years (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015) at three organically certified locations in Willsboro, NY, Freeville, NY, and Rock Springs, PA. Spring wheat and emmer entries were also tested on certified organic acreage in Carrington, ND. All entries were replicated three times and plot sizes varied from 3.78 to 8.91 square meters, depending on location.Agronomic results of these variety trials are published elsewhere...

Hairy vetch, Vicia villosa (Roth), is a cover crop that does not exhibit a typical domestication syndrome. Pod dehiscence reduces seed yield and creates weed problems for subsequent crops. Breeding efforts aim to reduce pod dehiscence in hairy vetch. To characterize pod dehiscence in the species, we quantified visual dehiscence and force required to cause dehiscence among 606 genotypes grown among seven environments of the United States. To identify potential secondary selection traits, we correlated pod dehiscence with various morphological pod characteristics and field measurements. Genotypes of hairy vetch exhibited wide variation in pod dehiscence, from completely indehiscent to completely dehiscent ratings. Mean force to dehiscence also varied widely, from 0.279 to 8.97 N among genotypes. No morphological traits were consistently correlated with pod dehiscence among environments where plants were grown. Results indicated that visual ratings of dehiscence would efficiently screen against genotypes with high pod dehiscence early in the breeding process. Force to dehiscence may be necessary to identify the indehiscent genotypes during advanced stages of selection.

Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) is a commonly grown legume cover crop in the United States. Critical breeding goals for the species include increasing early fall vigor and spring biomass production. To ascertain genetic improvement for these traits, we explored the relationship between fall and spring vigor. Moreover, we evaluated the variation in genotypic performance across multiple environments and assessed how weather variables affected germplasm performance. The relationship between fall and spring vigor differed by winter weather conditions. In warmer locations, top‐performing genotypes in the fall were the top performers in the spring, allowing simultaneous selection for both traits of interest. Environments with colder winter conditions, however, did not show linear relationships between fall and spring vigor. At cold sites, the most and least vigorous plants in the fall tended to underperform in the spring. Results suggest that fall vigor is not a linear predictor of spring vigor in cold environments, and consequently, breeding programs should screen and select for both traits in cold climates. Genotype × environment interaction (GE) heavily contributed to spring vigor performance. In our dataset, days below freezing without snow cover, days below freezing, minimum daily temperature, and freezing degree days were related to the signal in GE. As a result, breeding programs would benefit from dividing selection sites according to the severity of winter conditions.

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