maximum dry matter yield and quality with high grain content Phipps et al., 1979). The selection of corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids and the timing ofQuality measurements of corn forage are often reharvest are important management considerations for dairy and livestock operations. Objectives of this study were to determine the effect ported for fresh-cut corn only. Several reports have indiof harvest date on yield and quality of corn hybrids and to describe cated an increase in concentrations of fiber and crude the relationship between harvest date and the yield and quality of protein (CP) and a decrease in digestibility when corn corn forage, silage, and stover. During 1998 and 1999, four hybrids forage is ensiled (Hunt et al., 1992; McAllan and Phipps, were harvested at eight different harvest times between 521 and 1224 1977). Ensiling does not provide perfect preservation growing degree units (GDUs) after planting. Few hybrid or hybrid ϫ of crop quality. Harvesting forages when they are too harvest date effects were observed. As GDUs accumulated, dry matter wet or too dry makes the silage susceptible to effluent yield increased from 8 to 25 Mg ha Ϫ1 . Lowest concentrations of neutral losses and respiration losses, respectively (Barnett, detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) and highest 1954). There are additional losses due to plant and miconcentrations of in vitro true digestibility (IVTD) occurred when crobial respiration, which are significant and the cause forage was harvested between 700 and 650 g kg Ϫ1 moisture (1025 and 1186 GDUs after planting). Potential milk yield indices of milk Mg Ϫ1 of the majority of the dry matter losses that are typically corn forage (794 kg) and milk ha Ϫ1 corn forage (19 049 Mg) were measured in farm silos. This respiratory activity is espereached when corn was harvested between 670 and 630 g kg Ϫ1 moiscially damaging because it results in the oxidation of ture. In general, silage had 15% lower concentrations of NDF, 8% the most digestible portion of the crop. lower IVTD, 48% lower cell wall digestibility, 7% lower crude protein, H.M. Darby, Dep. of Hortic., Oregon State Univ., 4017 ALS, Corvallis, Merr.] for the site used in 1999. Soil P and K were maintained OR 97331; and J.G. Lauer,

maximum dry matter yield and quality with high grain content Phipps et al., 1979). The selection of corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids and the timing of Quality measurements of corn forage are often reharvest are important management considerations for dairy and livestock operations. Objectives of this study were to determine the effect ported for fresh-cut corn only. Several reports have indiof harvest date on yield and quality of corn hybrids and to describe cated an increase in concentrations of fiber and crude the relationship between harvest date and the yield and quality of protein (CP) and a decrease in digestibility when corn corn forage, silage, and stover. During 1998 and 1999, four hybrids forage is ensiled (Hunt et al., 1992; McAllan and Phipps, were harvested at eight different harvest times between 521 and 1224 1977). Ensiling does not provide perfect preservation growing degree units (GDUs) after planting. Few hybrid or hybrid ϫ of crop quality. Harvesting forages when they are too harvest date effects were observed. As GDUs accumulated, dry matter wet or too dry makes the silage susceptible to effluent yield increased from 8 to 25 Mg ha Ϫ1 . Lowest concentrations of neutral losses and respiration losses, respectively (Barnett, detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) and highest 1954). There are additional losses due to plant and miconcentrations of in vitro true digestibility (IVTD) occurred when crobial respiration, which are significant and the cause forage was harvested between 700 and 650 g kg Ϫ1 moisture (1025 and 1186 GDUs after planting). Potential milk yield indices of milk Mg Ϫ1 of the majority of the dry matter losses that are typically corn forage (794 kg) and milk ha Ϫ1 corn forage (19 049 Mg) were measured in farm silos. This respiratory activity is espereached when corn was harvested between 670 and 630 g kg Ϫ1 moiscially damaging because it results in the oxidation of ture. In general, silage had 15% lower concentrations of NDF, 8% the most digestible portion of the crop. lower IVTD, 48% lower cell wall digestibility, 7% lower crude protein,Various experiments have documented the best time and 15% higher concentrations of ADF than unfermented fresh forto harvest corn for silage to optimize yield and quality age. Harvesting can be accomplished until 580 g kg Ϫ1 moisture while (Bal et al., 1997;Philippeau and Michalet-Doreau, 1997; maintaining 95% of the maximum yield and milk ha Ϫ1 . Weaver et al., 1978). Wiersma et al. (1993) reported that corn silage quality is inversely related to stage of maturity at harvest. Reported values of one-fourth to A dverse spring conditions often push planting dates two-thirds milkline (650-680 g kg Ϫ1 moisture) are con-H.M. Darby, Dep. of Hortic., Oregon State Univ., 4017 ALS, Corvallis,Merr.] for the site used in 1999. Soil P and K were maintained OR 97331; and J.G. Lauer,

Food hubs serve as intermediaries between market actors in the aggregation and distribution of local food. Scholars have identified four common food hub models: retail-driven, nonprofit-driven, producer-driven, and consumer-driven. The nonprofit sector has played a prominent role in emerging alternative food networks such as food hubs. This research uses qualitative methods to analyze the development of nonprofit food hubs in Vermont, as well as potential challenges faced and opportunities gained by this model.The results suggest that nonprofit food hubs in Vermont can foster the awareness and education necessary to create and expand a thriving community food system, allowing multiple actors to participate at multiple levels. In this way, nonprofit food hubs provide a vehicle for cooperation between farmers and consumers. The most successful food hubs are those that develop within existing organizations; through the multifunctionality of the organization, the food hub can help educate consumers and producers and foster relationships that can lead to an increase in a local food system's capacity. Analysis reveals that although nonprofit food hubs offer the potential to positively impact local food systems, there are key areas of perceived vulnerability that threaten the overall resilience of this model. Recommended interventions for building resilience in nonprofit food hubs include technical assistance, a Jacqueline LeBlanc, MS, Department of Community Development and Applied Economics, University of Vermont. Jacqueline works for both Yellow Wood Associates, Inc., a rural community economic development consulting firm based in Vermont, and Feast Down East, a nonprofit food hub in Wilmington, North Carolina.

April resulted in grain yield decline, but because the maximum dry matter yield of corn stover was obtained Producers believe that corn (Zea mays L.) forage can be planted from a mid-May planting date, later planting of forage at later dates than corn grain because forage harvest does not have to wait until the grain matures fully. The objectives of this study were corn was recommended (Bunting, 1978). In Canada, to determine relationships between planting date and corn forage White (1977) and Fairey (1983) documented maturity yield and quality and to determine optimum planting dates of corn and yield advantages for corn planted in mid-May folforage for the state of Wisconsin. Full-and shorter-season hybrids lowed by a significant decline in dry matter content of were planted on six dates at six locations in Wisconsin during 1998 corn forage if planting was delayed past early June. and 1999. Few significant hybrid ϫ planting date interactions or hybrid

Several paper mills in Wisconsin have programs for spreading paper mill residuals (PMR) on land. A growing number of vegetable farmers recognize the agronomic benefits of PMR applications, but there have been no investigations on the use of PMR for control of vegetable crop diseases. Our objective was to determine the effect of PMR amendments on soilborne and foliar diseases of cucumber and snap bean grown on a sandy soil. Raw PMR, PMR composted without bulking agent (PMRC), or PMR composted with bark (PMRBC) were applied annually in a 3-year rotation of potato, snap bean, and pickling cucumber. Several naturally occurring diseases were evaluated in the field, along with in situ field bioassays. All amendments suppressed cucumber damping-off and Pythium blight and foliar brown spot of snap bean. Both composts reduced the incidence of angular leaf spot in cucumber. In a separate field experiment planted with snap bean for two consecutive years, all amendments reduced common root rot severity in the second year. In a greenhouse experiment, the high rate of PMRBC suppressed anthracnose of snap bean. These results suggest that the application of raw and composted PMR to sandy soils has the potential to control several soilborne and foliar diseases.

Ensuring adequate available N for grain protein development is a primary challenge for organic production of winter bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Topdressing organic wheat in‐season may improve grain yield and quality. The objective of this study was to determine if supplemental N topdressing at key wheat developmental stages would improve organic hard red winter wheat yield and protein concentrations. Field experiments were conducted over 4 site‐years from 2009 to 2011 in Maine and Vermont, using the variety Harvard. Treatments were a factorial arrangement of two organic‐approved N sources (Chilean nitrate, CN, and dehydrated poultry litter, DPL) and three times of application (tillering, flag leaf, and boot stages). Plant N uptake, grain yield, and grain protein concentration were determined. Plant‐accumulated N was always higher in the CN treatments than in the DPL and manure‐only treatments. The CN topdress treatments yielded on average 11% more than the manure‐only treatment and 6% more than DPL treatments. Topdressing increased grain protein concentration in all cases, although none of the treatments reached the 120 g kg–1 milling standard, due in part to variety Harvard being a low‐protein, high‐yielding variety. Chilean nitrate was more effective at increasing grain protein levels than DPL, and for both N sources, later applications were more effective than earlier ones. Topdressing could be a cost‐effective strategy to boost grain protein levels for organic winter wheat production, but further work is needed to evaluate topdressing with higher protein varieties and identify additional rapidly‐available and economical organic approved N sources.

Root rots of snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and sweet corn (Zea mays L.) cause economic losses to farmers. This study was conducted to determine whether dairy manure amendments suppressed root diseases and to describe relationships between disease severity and soil characteristics. Field plots were amended with high or low rates of fresh or composted dairy manure solids in 2001 and 2002. Soils were collected at 2 and 12 mo after the first amendment and 2 and 6 mo after the second amendment. Greenhouse bioassays were conducted to assess severity of damping‐off (DO) of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and root rots of bean and corn. Soils were analyzed for soil free (fPOM) and occluded (oPOM) particulate organic matter content, rate of hydrolysis of fluorescein diacetate (FDA), arylsulfatase activity, microbial biomass C, and water‐stable aggregation (WSA). Two months after amendment, all amendments (except the low rate of manure) reduced the severity of DO 30%, bean root rot 29%, and corn root rot 67%. Twelve months after amendment, amended soils were no longer suppressive. All amendments were suppressive after re‐amendment the following year and no longer suppressive 6 mo later. In Year 1, significant suppression was observed across all diseases when fPOM content was ≥12.1 g cm−3, FDA activity was ≥2.88 μg FDA min−1 g−1 dry wt, and microbial biomass was ≥91.6 μg C g−1 dry wt, and these levels were proposed as suppressive thresholds. Only the FDA threshold held up over all sampling times.

Increasing the amount of micronutrients in diets across the world is crucial to improving world health. Numerous methods can accomplish this such as the biofortification of food through biotechnology, conventional breeding, and agronomic approaches. Of these, biofortification methods, conventional breeding, and agronomic approaches are currently globally accepted and, therefore, should be the primary focus of research efforts. This review synthesizes the current literature regarding the state of biofortified foods through conventional breeding and agronomic approaches for crops. Additionally, the benefits and limitations for all described approaches are discussed, allowing us to identify key areas of research that are still required to increase the efficacy of these methods. The information provided here should provide a basal knowledge for global efforts that are combating micronutrient deficiencies.