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BackgroundThe negative consequences of peer-victimization on children and adolescents are major public health concerns which have been subjected to extensive research. Given all efforts made to analyze and estimate the social and health consequences of peer-victimization, the adolescents’ own experiences and understandings have had surprisingly little impact on the definition of bullying. Therefore, the aim of the current study is to explore adolescents’ definitions of bullying.MethodsA questionnaire study (n = 128) and four focus group interviews (n = 21) were conducted among students aged 13 and 15. First, gender and age differences were analyzed with respect to what behaviors are considered bullying (questionnaire data). Second, analysis of what bullying is (focus group interviews) was conducted using qualitative content analysis.ResultsThe adolescents own understanding and definition of bullying didn’t just include the traditional criteria of repetition and power imbalance, but also a criterion based on the health consequences of bullying. The results showed that a single but hurtful or harmful incident also could be considered bullying irrespective of whether the traditional criteria were fulfilled or not. Further, girls and older students had a more inclusive view of bullying and reported more types of behaviors as bullying compared to boys and younger students.ConclusionsThe results of the current study adds to the existing literature by showing that adolescents consider the victim’s experience of hurt and harm as a criterion for defining bullying and not only as consequences of bullying. This may be of special relevance for the identification and classification of bullying incidents on the internet where devastating consequences have been reported from single incidents and the use of the traditional criteria of intent, repetition and power imbalance may not be as relevant as for traditional bullying. It implies that the traditional criteria included in most definitions of bullying may not fully reflect adolescents’ understanding and definition of bullying. Assessments of bullying behaviors that ask adolescents to strictly adhere to the traditional definition of bullying might not identify all adolescents experiencing peer victimization and therefore not provide estimates of prevalence rates reflecting adolescents’ own understanding of bullying.

Gender norms are normative societal expectations regarding the behaviors of girls and boys that can guide bullying behavior. As early adolescence is a time when peer relations become increasingly important, it is critical to understand the peer relationships of adolescents and what is considered gender non‐confirming behavior. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze Swedish girls’ and boys’ perception of gender differences in bullying. Twenty‐one Swedish adolescents (8 girls and 13 boys) took part in four focus group discussions separated by boys and girls. Data analysis was conducted using qualitative content analysis. “Expectations and needs to fit the norm” emerged as the main category as all categories emerging from the analysis related to boys’ and girls’ understandings of how expectations, strategies, expressions relating to bullying and the need to belong vary depending on gender. Further, girls and boys expressed admiration for each other's ways of coping with bullying indicating that also coping strategies are associated with expectations based on gender. For schools and adults to be better equipped to meet the needs of girls and boys and understand how these needs are expressed, adolescents voices regarding gender related bullying can be seen as helpful tools to develop strategies to work with gender norms and gender expectations. In light of the results of our study, schools may have work to do when it comes to the awareness of norms and attitudes and how they are expressed as these may be a foundation for bullying, among both staff and students.

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have shown an increased risk for violence and victimization. However, research on exposure to multiple forms of victimization in different contexts are scarce. Hence, the current aim is to review the evidence about polyvictimization among children with ASD or ADHD. PsycInfo, ERIC, ERC, Scopus, and PubMed databases were systematically searched until 12 March 2019 to identify empirical studies with reported prevalence rates of at least four forms of victimization among children with ASD or ADHD. A total of 6/1300 articles were included in the review, ranging in sample sizes from 92 to 4114. The reported prevalence rates for polyvictimization were 1.8% and 23.1% for children with ASD and 7.3% for children with ADHD. The results emphasize the high prevalence of violence and victimization, including polyvictimization, among children with ASD or ADHD. Polyvictimization among children with ASD or ADHD is a highly under researched area. Significant knowledge gaps and important methodological considerations that provide important implications for future research include lack of information on cyber bullying, frequency or intensity of victimization, and the failure to include children as informants and to report health outcomes associated with polyvictimization.

Listening to the voices of adolescents and young adults regarding their lived experiences could be a way to identify important skills and abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that will enable youth to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Hence, the aim with the current study is to explore the experiences and understandings of the life situation among adolescents and young adults of today, by making their voices heard in regards to mental health and help-seeking behaviour. A total of 6 group interviews were conducted with 22 adolescents and young adults (13 girls and 9 boys) ages 17–25 (M = 18.6 years). Data analysis was conducted using qualitative content analysis and resulted in two categories and five subcategories. The first category, Life challenges, included views on the sources of mental health, how to manage different types of relationships, and thoughts on accepted ways to express mental health problems. The second category, The need of present adults, highlighted important aspects for seeking help, such as an expressed need to be seen and heard by adults including parents, school staff, and other professionals as well as a need for adults’ increased availability. The challenges to students’ well-being and mental health are many, and there are no simple solutions. Based on the results in this study, life skills training should include elements to enhance the development of individual coping strategies, to be applied when life feels tough and when the body is experiencing stress reactions. Further, to minimize the risk of self-stigma and the internalization of negative stereotypes and self-blame, life skills training should include elements to increase knowledge of structural factors that have effects on the life situation as well as parents, school personnel, and other important adults.

Background: Common definitions of bullying, employed in research and public policy alike, are generally based on adultimposed categories. To account for students' needs in school, research should aim to include their voices more often. However, a major challenge for educational research in general, and bullying research in particular, is finding methods that enable students to participate in the discussion. Purpose: The aim of this small, exploratory and in-depth study was to further the understanding of bullying and provide insights by examining students' subjective viewpoints about bullying. Method: Using Q methodology, a total of 29 Swedish 11-and 13year-olds from one school were given a Q set, comprising 23 items to rank order. Aspects such as the characteristics, modes and types, as well as the context of bullying, were taken into account in the construction of the Q set. Through analysis it was possible to identify two distinct viewpoints, which were then qualitatively interpreted and described. Findings: The viewpoints which emerged within this small, exploratory analysis suggested some interesting distinctions and age-related emphases. Specifically, the older students tended to rank items taking place offline as more severe, compared with items describing bullying taking place online. Further, bullying in private settings was perceived as more severe amongst the younger students, while items describing repetitive bullying in public settings appeared to be of greatest importance when defining bullying behaviour amongst the older students. The relational types of bullying were not ranked as highly characteristic for bullying by younger or older students. Conclusions: Further research with larger data sets is necessary to investigate these emerging findings. The study draws attention to the need for adults to maintain a focus on students' behaviours offline, as well as online: in this highly digital age, it is easy for the offline context to be inadvertently overlooked. When it comes to younger students, anti-bullying efforts targeting bullying in private settings and acknowledging potential harm may be more suitable than anti-bullying efforts targeting stigma and shame, which may, in turn, better support the needs of older students. The study also shines a light on the importance of using participatory methodologies that allow students to express their own perspectives.