Underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) has been widely considered a supplement to traditional underwater acoustic communication. A real-time UWOC video delivery system was developed in a laboratory water tank based on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) with binary frequency shift keying (2FSK) modulation. The system achieved full-duplex communication by using the transmission control protocol (TCP) and forward error correction (FEC). A high-power 445 nm lightemitting diode (LED) array was adopted to enhance the transmitted optical power and increase the transmission link distance. We present an underwater optical channel model that considers the effects of both geometry and channel loss, especially considering the impact of the refractive index of the optical medium and the non-line-of-sight (NLOS) links formed by water surface reflection. MATLAB was used to simulate this channel model and predict the received optical power distribution on the receiving plane. Additionally, we propose improved calculation methods for the consumed electrical power and transmitted optical power of the LED array. We also investigate the relationship between the optimum avalanche gain of an avalanche photodiode (APD) and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). This full-duplex system achieved a 1 Mbps data transmission rate at an SNR of 10.1 dB and a distance of 10 m for an underwater link. In addition, when the optical power of the LED array is enhanced, the link range is predicted to be 14.5 m with an attenuation coefficient of 0.056 /m. INDEX TERMS Binary frequency shift keying, full-duplex, FPGA, high-power LED array, optical link model, Reed-Solomon code, underwater wireless optical communication. I. INTRODUCTION The ocean is the cradle of life. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by the ocean. The vast marine resources on Earth are indispensable for many aspects of life. It is necessary to exploit and utilize those resources with underwater wireless communication (UWC) technology, which has considerable potential in facilitating the use of underwater vehicles, devices, observatories, and sensors. Underwater wired communication uses fiber optic or copper cable, which is expensive, inflexible, and vulnerable to marine life, making it largely infeasible for use in underwater mobile systems. Acoustic waves, radio frequency (RF) waves, and optical waves are three primary physical information carriers for underwater wireless information transmission [1]-[3]. Acoustic waves involve mechanical waves with relatively little attenuation underwater (0.1-4 dB/km), and thus, they can cover long distances up to dozens of kilometers. However, acoustic waves have a low propagation speed (1500 m/s) and limited bandwidth (kHz), which leads to a multipath phenomenon, large time latency, and bulky antennas [2]. These characteristics hinder the application of acoustic waves in real-time and bandwidth-intensive scenarios. RF waves are another carrier that can provide a high data rate (Mbps), high bandwidth (MHz), and high speed...

Underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) is a promising technology that can be a candidate to improve the communication capacity and speed in aquatic media. The aim of this study is to examine the performance of a silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) array-based multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) UWOC system. A SiPM is a modern solid-state photodetector with extremely high sensitivity up to the single-photon level or a photon-counting ability, which helps in detecting extremely weak light signals after long-distance underwater channel attenuation. We clarify the basic characteristics and photon-counting detection mode of a SiPM. In particular, the photocount of a SiPM is approximated by a Gaussian distribution, and theoretical analysis shows that only 13.3 photons need to be detected during “1” symbol period to achieve a bit error rate of 10−3 in an ambient light environment. Moreover, a SiPM also has a better analog mode detection ability than an avalanche photodiode (APD) and realizes 2 Mbps analog communication owing to its unique array structure and high photon detection efficiency. Furthermore, MIMO, i.e., spatial diversity, is applied as an effective method to relax the link alignment, improve the system performance, and alleviate the effect of optical turbulence. In our experiment, with a photon-counting 6×3 MIMO scheme, an energy per bit of 7.38×10−9 J/bit is achieved at a scintillation index of 4.66×10−3 in a 10 m water tank with 1 Mbps on-off-keying (OOK) modulation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study on a MIMO-UWOC system based on the photon-counting mode of a SiPM array. This UWOC system combines the advantages of SiPMs and the MIMO scheme and has the potential to realize long-distance UWOC under optical turbulence.

Micro multiple quantum well (MQW) III‐nitride diodes usually function as micro light‐emitting diodes, which are considered the next generation of display technology. In addition to both illumination and display, MQW III‐nitride diodes in theory have the capability to both detect and modulate light. Here, proof that the III‐nitride diode can simultaneously emit and detect light is experimentally confirmed by a wireless light communication system using two identical devices. The 20 × 20 MQW III‐nitride diodes are monolithically integrated into a single chip and a real‐time imaging system of transmitted images is established, which in practice can perform display, illumination, imaging, and simultaneous illumination‐imaging operations. These functions can be software controlled and switched freely. This work may lead to a multifunctional display that merges millions of III‐nitride diodes together to perform these functions at the same time.

Multiple-quantum well (MQW) III-nitride diodes can both emit and detect light. In particular, a III-nitride diode can absorb shorter-wavelength photons generated from another III-nitride diode that shares an identical MQW structure because of the spectral overlap between the emission and detection spectra of the III-nitride diode, which establishes a wireless visible light communication system using two identical III-nitride diodes. Moreover, a wireless light communication system using a modulating retro-reflector (MRR) enables asymmetric optical links, which forms a two-way optical link using a single transmitter and receiver. Here, in association with an MRR, we propose, fabricate, and characterize asymmetric optical links using monolithic III-nitride diodes, where one III-nitride diode functions as a transmitter to emit light, an MRR reflects light with the encoded information, another monolithically integrated III-nitride diode serves as a receiver to absorb the reflected light to convert optical signals into electrical ones, and the encoded information is finally decoded. Advanced monolithic III-nitride asymmetric optical links can be developed toward Internet of Things (IoT) deployment based on such multifunction devices.

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Multifunctioning InGaN/GaN multi‐quantum well (MQW) diodes can transmit and detect light separately. In particular, MQW diodes have spectral overlap between electroluminescence (EL) and responsivity, conferring the unique ability to detect light emitted by another device sharing an identical MQW structure. Herein, a III‐nitride transmitter and a receiver on a single chip are monolithically integrated, which can establish an asymmetric optical link and significantly reduce material and processing costs. By attaching the chip to the skin with the transmitter emitting toward it, the device can monitor cardiac activity. Heart pulses change blood volume of the vascular bed, which modulates the reflected light. The receiver absorbs that light and converts it into electrical signals. Finally, by integrating a programmed circuit, the biological signals are analyzed. Herein, a feasible approach to monitor heart rate and cardiac‐related pulse information simultaneously is provided.

MPa grade Cr-Ni weld metal with martensite and retained austenite was produced by single-pass GMAW. Its impact behavior was evaluated using the Charpy impact test. It was found that (1) strain-induced martensite transformation from the retained austenite enhances the impact absorbed energy at various temperatures and contents of oxygen in weld metal; (2) increasing the oxygen content in weld metal reduces the impact absorbed energy; and (3) at 233K, strain-induced martensite transformation can change the fracture mode of the weld metal with extremely low oxygen content from brittle to ductile, but it has no such effect at higher oxygen content levels. Oxide promotes ductile fracture. An increase in the oxygen content lowers the vTrs.