Persistent genital HIV-1 shedding among women taking antiretroviral therapy (ART) may present a transmission risk. We investigated associations between genital HIV-1 suppression after ART initiation and adherence, resistance, pre-treatment CD4 count, and hormonal contraceptive use. First-line ART was initiated in 102 women. Plasma and genital HIV-1 RNA were measured at months 0, 3, and 6. Adherence was a strong and consistent predictor of genital HIV-1 suppression (p<0.001), while genotypic resistance was associated with higher vaginal HIV-1 RNA at 6 months (p=0.04). These results emphasize the importance of adherence to optimize the potential benefits of ART for reducing HIV-1 transmission risk.

Vaginal washing and unprotected intercourse were associated with increased risk of BV. These findings could help to inform the development of novel vaginal health approaches for HIV-1 risk reduction in women.

Objective The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that sexual risk behaviour would increase following initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Kenyan female sex workers (FSWs). Design Prospective cohort study. Setting FSW cohort in Mombasa, Kenya, 1993-2008. Subjects 898 women contributed HIV-1-seropositive follow-up visits, of whom 129 initiated ART. Intervention Beginning in March 2004, ART was provided to women qualifying for treatment according to Kenyan National Guidelines. Participants received sexual risk reduction education and free condoms at every visit. Main Outcome Measures Main outcome measures included unprotected intercourse, abstinence, 100% condom use, number of sexual partners, and frequency of sex. Outcomes were evaluated at monthly follow-up visits using a one week recall interval. Results Compared to non-ART-exposed follow-up, visits following ART initiation were not associated with an increase in unprotected sex (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 0.86, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.62-1.19, P=0.4). There was a non-significant decrease in abstinence (AOR 0.81, 95% CI 0.65-1.01, P=0.07), which was offset by a substantial increase in 100% condom use (AOR 1.54, 95% CI 1.07-2.20, P=0.02). Numbers of sex partners and frequency of sex were similar before versus after starting ART. A trend for decreased sexually transmitted infections following ART initiation provides additional support for the validity of the self-reported behavioural outcomes (AOR 0.67, 95% CI 0.44-1.02, P=0.06). Conclusions In the setting of ongoing risk reduction education and provision of free condoms, initiation of ART was not associated with increased sexual risk behaviour in this cohort of Kenyan FSWs.

OBJECTIVE To understand temporal trends in the contribution of different genital tract infections to HIV incidence over 20 years of follow-up in a cohort of high-risk women. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. METHODS We performed monthly evaluations for HIV, vaginal yeast, bacterial vaginosis (BV), Trichomonas vaginalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, non-specific cervicitis, herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), genital ulcer disease (GUD) and genital warts. We used Cox regression to evaluate the association between STIs and HIV acquisition over 4 time periods (1993–1997, 1998–2002, 2003–2007, 2008–2012). Models were adjusted for age, workplace, sexual risk behavior, hormonal contraceptive use, and other STIs. The resulting hazard ratios were used to calculate population attributable risk percent (PAR%). RESULTS Between 1993 and 2012, 1,964 women contributed 6,135 person-years of follow-up. The overall PAR% for each infection was: prevalent HSV-2 (48.3%), incident HSV-2 (4.5%), BV (15.1%), intermediate microbiota (7.5%), vaginal yeast (6.4%), T. vaginalis (1.1%), N. gonorrhoeae (0.9%), non-specific cervicitis (0.7%), GUD (0.8%), and genital warts (−0.2%). Across the four time periods, the PAR% for prevalent HSV-2 (40.4%, 61.8%, 58.4%, 48.3%) and BV (17.1%, 19.5%, 14.7%, 17.1%), remained relatively high and had no significant trend for change over time. The PAR% for trichomoniasis, gonorrhea, GUD and genital warts remained <3% across the four periods. CONCLUSIONS Bacterial vaginosis and HSV-2 have consistently been the largest contributors to HIV acquisition risk in the Mombasa Cohort over the past 20 years. Interventions that prevent these conditions would benefit women’s health, and could reduce their risk of becoming infected with HIV.