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College of the Holy Cross Mixed-and same-sex dyads were observed to examine effects of gender composition on language and of language on gender differences in influence. Ss discussed a topic on which they disagreed. Women were more tentative than men, but only in mixed-sex dyads. Women who spoke tentatively were more influential with men and less influential with women. Language had no effect on how influential men were. In a second study, 120 Ss listened to an audiotape of identical persuasive messages presented either by a man or a woman, half of whom spoke tentatively. Female speakers who spoke tentatively were more influential with male Ss and less influential with female Ss than those who spoke assertively. Male speakers were equally influential in each condition. Researchers have reported a wide variety of language differences between the sexes (e.g,

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In the article, "Type I and Type II Errors in Simultaneous and Two-Stage Multiple Comparison Procedures," by H.

This review article reveals that men are generally more influential than women, although the gender difference depends on several moderators. Relative to men, women are particularly less influential when using dominant forms of communication, whereas the male advantage in influence is reduced in domains that are traditionally associated with the female role and in group settings in which more than one woman or girl is present. Males in particular resist influence by women and girls more than females do, especially when influence agents employ highly competent styles of communication. Resistance to competent women can be reduced, however, when women temper their competence with displays of communality and warmth.Historically, most research on gender and social influence has focused on gender differences in influenceability, the extent to which men and women are influenced by others. In fact, the numerous studies on this topic have been reviewed several times (e.g., Becker, 1986;Eagly, 1978;Eagly & Carli, 1981). Less attention, however, has been devoted to the effect of a person's gender on his or her ability to influence others, an ability that can contribute to effective management in organizations and is associated with career advancement and increases in salary (Dreher, Dougherty, & Whitely, 1989;Kanter, 1977;Rao, Schmidt, & Murray, 1995). Consequently, examining the factors that contribute to gender differences in social influence has implications for understanding women's leadership. This article reviews research on gender differences in exerting influence, including the factors that moderate the gender differences.In most settings, women possess lower levels of status and power than men do, particularly power based on expertise or legitimate authority (Carli, 1999; Ridgeway, this issue). Because men and women typically fill different roles, with women

This article reviews research on gender differences in power and their effect on social influence. Evidence indicates that men generally possess higher levels of expert and legitimate power than women do and that women possess higher levels of referent power than men do. These differences are reflected, to some extent, in the influence strategies used by men and women and, more clearly, in gender differences in social influence. Women generally have greater difficulty exerting influence than men do, particularly when they use influence that conveys competence and authority. These findings indicate that gender differences in influence are mediated by gender differences in power.How do women influence others? Are they disadvantaged as leaders? Are they less powerful than men are? These questions focus on a current and serious social issue, the relative inequities in social power between men and women. The issue of women's power, relative to men, is not merely academic. Gender differences in power have real consequences for women. For example, although women have made gains in the workplace, with more women working than in the past and women possessing approximately a third of all management positions (Colwill, 1993), women continue to experience wage discrimination, be excluded from the most powerful executive positions, advance more slowly in their careers, and experience fewer benefits from obtaining education or work experience (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995), and are included in fewer networks (Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989) and exert less authority (Colwill; Lyness & Thompson, 1997) than men in similar positions. A number of researchers have linked career advancement and access to benefits and resources within organizations to an effective use of power (Ely,

Participants viewed a videotape of either a male or female confederate delivering a persuasive message using a high task, social, submissive, or dominant nonverbal style. Participants were influenced more after viewing the social and task styles than the dominant or submissive styles. Participants liked task and social confederates more than dominant confederates and considered submissive confederates to be less competent than the other 3 styles. Although both likableness and competence were predictive of influence, likableness was a more important determinant of influence for female than male speakers when the audience was male. Consequently, with a male audience, women exhibiting a task style were less influential and likable than men exhibiting that style. Men were not more influential than women when displaying dominance. Gender differences in influenceability and power have been linked to the lower status of women in our culture (Berger, Rosenholtz, & Zelditch, 1980; Meeker & Weitzel-O'Neill, 1985). Some researchers have indicated that, because of their higher status, displays of dominance by men are more effective at inducing influence than such displays by women, particularly with a male audience (

Purpose This paper aims to review the existing literature on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender and work roles to determine whether the pandemic has undermined the status, pay and advancement of women or has provided opportunities for reducing gender inequality. Design/methodology/approach The author reviewed the literature on the effects of COVID-19 and past pandemics on gender equality, focusing on job loss, the effects of being in essential occupations on health and well-being, the increased domestic responsibilities of women and men due to closure of schools and other social services and the effects of telecommuting on gender roles. Findings The pandemic has generally created challenges for women’s advancement. More women than men have lost their jobs; more women than men are in essential jobs that expose them to infection and psychological stress, and women have had more work disruption than men have had because of increases in childcare and other responsibilities. On the other hand, telecommuting has increased men’s amount of childcare, and this does have the potential to increase men’s childcare responsibilities in the long term, thereby reducing the gender gap in domestic responsibilities and increasing gender equality. Research limitations/implications The COVID-19 pandemic is still ongoing and the research on the pandemic’s effects are new and ongoing. Originality/value To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first scholarly review of the literature on the potential effects of COVID-19 on the gender gap in pay and advancement.