The effects of relative frequency of knowledge of results on the retention of a motor skill was studied. Adams' theory (1971) contends that the perceptual trace of a criterion position gains on increment of strenth each time the feedback stimuli associated with the criterion position are experienced and that it is the strength of the perceptual trace that determines retention. Schmidt's theory (1975), however, suggests that the recognition schema is updated only on trials on which the feedback stimuli associated with the criterion position are experienced in conjunction with knowledge of results and that it is the precision of the recognition schema that determines retention. Two experiments were conducted. The results provided evidence contrary to Adams' theory. Schmidt's theory, however, was only partially supported.
The present study investigated the appropriateness of the levels-of-processing framework of memory for explaining retention of information in motor short-term memory. Subjects were given labels descriptive of the positions to be remembered by the experimenter (EL), were given no labels (NL), or provided their own labels (SL). A control group (CONT) was required to count backwards during the presentation of the criterion positions. The inclusion of a 30-sec filled retention interval as well as 0-sec and 30-sec unfilled retention intervals tested a prediction by Craik and Lockhart (1972), when attention is diverted from an item, information will be lost at a rate appropriate to its level of processing - that is, slower rates for deeper levels. Groups EL and SL had greater accuracy at recall for all three retention intervals than groups CONT and NL. In addition, there was no significant increase in error between 30-sec unfilled and 30-sec filled intervals for groups EL and SL, while there was a significant increase in error for groups CONT and NL. The data were interpreted in terms of Craik and Lockhart's (1972) levels-of-processing approach to memory.
The manipulation of the retention of a linear movement by means of different orienting tasks in an incidental learning paradigm was investigated. Subjects were presented with a target position followed by a different nontarget position on each of four presentation trials. After the presentation trials subjects were required to recall the target and nontarget positions. One group made verbal estimates of the distance between the target and nontarget positions, another group discriminated between the target and nontarget positions, while no verbal responses were required for a third group. The verbal-response groups, while not differing from each other, had less error at recall than the nonverbalizing group. These findings were discussed in terms of the levels of processing framework for memory research (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).
The present study investigated the effects of an orienting task on both the immediate and delayed recall of a linear arm movement. All 60 college and graduate students were given the instructions to learn an experimenter-defined target position; however, some subjects were presented additional non-target positions interpolated between presentations of the target position. One group made verbal estimates of the distance between the target and non-target positions, another group made no estimates concerning target and non-target positions, while a third group was presented only the target positions. The group making the verbal estimates was most accurate after an immediate and a 10-min. filled retention interval.
The effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) upon linear-positioning performance was investigated. 30 right-handed subjects were trained and tested on a linear-positioning apparatus either under constant stimulus conditions or mixed stimulus—no-stimulus conditions. The nerve stimulation, administered by a Staodyn Model 4000 stimulator, was positioned to stimulate the brachial plexus. Subjects' task was to learn a position 300 mm along a trackway while blindfolded. 20 acquisition trials with knowledge of results, which consisted of a verbal report of the magnitude of the subjects' errors, were given followed by 20 retention trials without knowledge of results. During acquisition subjects receiving nerve stimulation required a greater number of trials to achieve asymptotic error reductions than subjects who did not receive this stimulation. However, during retention, the acquisition group, no longer receiving transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, consistently exhibited longer responses than control subjects. Subjects receiving the electrical stimulation for the first time during retention exhibited responses which were shorter than those exhibited by controls and acquisition-stimulated groups. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for motor-control mechanisms.
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