Another link in the chain: A thiolactone‐based approach for the preparation of multifunctionalized sequence‐defined oligomeric structures on solid support was established. The iterative aminolysis/chain extension method with a single building block and a variety of commercial amines allowed for the protecting group free synthesis of various oligomeric motifs with a unique backbone and a preprogrammed organization of side chain functionalities.

The X-chromosome harbors hundreds of disease genes whose associated diseases predominantly affect males. However, a subset, including neurodevelopmental disorders, Rett syndrome (RTT), fragile X syndrome, and CDKL5 syndrome, also affects females. These disorders lack disease-specific treatment. Because female cells carry two X chromosomes, an emerging treatment strategy has been to reawaken the healthy allele on the inactive X (Xi). Here, we focus on methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) restoration for RTT and combinatorially target factors in the interactome of Xist, the noncoding RNA responsible for X inactivation. We identify a mixed modality approach combining an Xist antisense oligonucleotide and a small-molecule inhibitor of DNA methylation, which, together, achieve 30,000-fold MECP2 up-regulation from the Xi in cultured cells. Combining a brain-specific genetic ablation with short-term 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (Aza) treatment models the synergy in vivo without evident toxicity. The Xi is selectively reactivated. These experiments provide proof of concept for a mixed modality approach for treating X-linked disorders in females.

The debate about electronic cigarettes is dividing healthcare professionals, policymakers, manufacturers, and communities. A key limitation in our understanding of the cause and consequences of vaping is the lack of animal models of nicotine vapor self-administration. Here, we developed a novel model of voluntary electronic cigarette use in rats using operant behavior. We found that rats voluntarily exposed themselves to nicotine vapor to the point of reaching blood nicotine levels that are similar to humans. The level of responding on the active (nicotine) lever was similar to the inactive (air) lever and lower than the active lever that was associated with vehicle (polypropylene glycol/glycerol) vapor, suggesting low positive reinforcing effects and low nicotine vapor discrimination. Lever pressing behavior with nicotine vapor was pharmacologically prevented by the α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist and α7 receptor full agonist varenicline in rats that self-administered nicotine but not vehicle vapor. Moreover, 3 weeks of daily (1 h) nicotine vapor self-administration produced addiction-like behaviors, including somatic signs of withdrawal, allodynia, anxiety-like behavior, and relapse-like behavior after 3 weeks of abstinence. Finally, 3 weeks of daily (1 h) nicotine vapor self-administration produced cardiopulmonary abnormalities and changes in α4, α3, and β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit mRNA levels in the nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex. These findings validate a novel animal model of nicotine vapor self-administration in rodents with relevance to electronic cigarette use in humans and highlight the potential addictive properties and harmful effects of chronic nicotine vapor self-administration.

Visual Abstract

X-chromosome inactivation is a mechanism of dosage compensation in which one of the two X chromosomes in female mammals is transcriptionally silenced. Once established, silencing of the inactive X (Xi) is robust and difficult to reverse pharmacologically. However, the Xi is a reservoir of >1,000 functional genes that could be potentially tapped to treat X-linked disease. To identify compounds that could reactivate the Xi, here we screened ∼367,000 small molecules in an automated high-content screen using an Xi-linked GFP reporter in mouse fibroblasts. Given the robust nature of silencing, we sensitized the screen by “priming” cells with the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor, 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (5azadC). Compounds that elicited GFP activity include VX680, MLN8237, and 5azadC, which are known to target the Aurora kinase and DNA methylation pathways. We demonstrate that the combinations of VX680 and 5azadC, as well as MLN8237 and 5azadC, synergistically up-regulate genes on the Xi. Thus, our work identifies a synergism between the DNA methylation and Aurora kinase pathways as being one of interest for possible pharmacological reactivation of the Xi.

Another link in the chain: A thiolactone‐based approach for the preparation of multifunctionalized sequence‐defined oligomeric structures on solid support was established. The iterative aminolysis/chain extension method with a single building block and a variety of commercial amines allowed for the protecting group free synthesis of various oligomeric motifs with a unique backbone and a preprogrammed organization of side chain functionalities.

We here report on the furan oxidation methodology for interstrand cross-linking of RNA duplexes, which have a different structure and are more stiff, reactive and labile than their DNA counterparts. Through this mildly inducible approach, natural unmodified RNA can be selectively cross-linked in high yield. The method therefore has direct applications in the increasing number of RNA based technologies.

Furan mediated nucleic acid cross-linking, initially developed for DNA interstrand duplex cross-linking, has matured into a versatile tool for the study of protein and nucleic acid interactions, ready to face its applications. The methodology was initially developed for easy and clean chemical generation of DNA interstrand cross-linked duplexes, but has been further expanded for use with other probes, targets and triggers, now allowing mild biologically significant cross-linking with potential therapeutic benefit. It was shown that the methodology could be repurposed for RNA interstrand cross-linking, which is very relevant in today's antisense approaches or miRNA target identification endeavors. This further illustrates the furan oxidation method's generality and mildness, especially when using red light for oxidation. A complementary antigene approach has been explored through duplex targeting with furan modified triplex forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) and DNA binding proteins. Also targeting of peptides and proteins by furan-modified DNA and peptides has been explored. Thorough methodology examination exploring variable reaction conditions in combination with a series of different furan-modified building blocks and application of different activation signals resulted in a detailed understanding of the mechanisms involved and factors influencing the yield and selectivity of the reaction. In order to draw the bigger picture of the scope and limitations of furan-oxidation cross-linking, we here provide a unique side by side comparison and discussion of our published data, supplemented with unpublished results, providing a clear performance report of the currently established furan toolbox and its application potential in various biomacromolecular complexes.