Summary Androgen ablation therapy is the primary treatment for metastatic prostate cancer. However, this therapy is associated with several undesired side-effects, including increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. To study if termination of long-term androgen ablation and restoring testosterone level may suppress the growth of relapsed hormone-refractory prostate tumors, we implanted testosterone pellets in castrated nude mice carrying androgen receptor (AR)-positive LNCaP 104-R2 cells, which relapsed from androgen-dependent LNCaP 104-S cells after long-term androgen deprivation. 104-R2 tumor xenografts regressed after testosterone pellets implant. 24 out of 33 tumors adapted to elevation of testosterone level and relapsed as androgen-insensitive tumors. Relapsed tumors (R2Ad) expressed less AR and prostate-specific antigen (PSA). We then study the molecular mechanism lying underneath the androgenic regulation of prostate cancer cell proliferation. Androgen suppresses proliferation of 104-R2 by inducing G1 cell cycle arrest via reduction of Skp2 and c-Myc, and induction of p27Kip1. 104-R2 cells adapted to androgen treatment and the adapted cells, R2Ad, were androgen-insensitive cells with slower growing rate and low protein level of AR, high levels of c-Myc and Skp2, and low levels of p27Kip1. Nuclear AR and PSA expression is present in 104-R2 cells but not R2Ad cells when androgen is absent. Overexpression of AR in R2Ad cells regenerated an androgen-repressed phenotype, while knockdown of AR in 104-R2 cells generated an androgen-insensitive phenotype. Overexpression of Skp2 and c-Myc in 104-R2 cells blocked the growth inhibition caused by androgens. We concluded that androgens cause growth inhibition in LNCaP 104-R2 prostate cancer cells via AR, Skp2, and c-Myc.

Head and neck cancers, which affect 650,000 people and cause 350,000 deaths per year, is the sixth leading cancer by cancer incidence and eighth by cancer-related death worldwide. Oral cancer is the most common type of head and neck cancer. More than 90% of oral cancers are oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). The overall five-year survival rate of OSCC patients is approximately 63%, which is due to the low response rate to current therapeutic drugs. In this review we discuss the possibility of using caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) as an alternative treatment for oral cancer. CAPE is a strong antioxidant extracted from honeybee hive propolis. Recent studies indicate that CAPE treatment can effectively suppress the proliferation, survival, and metastasis of oral cancer cells. CAPE treatment inhibits Akt signaling, cell cycle regulatory proteins, NF-κB function, as well as activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Therefore, CAPE treatment induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in oral cancer cells. According to the evidence that aberrations in the EGFR/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling, NF-κB function, COX-2 activity, and MMPs activity are frequently found in oral cancers, and that the phosphorylation of Akt, EGFR, and COX-2 correlates to oral cancer patient survival and clinical progression, we believe that CAPE treatment will be useful for treatment of advanced oral cancer patients.

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed non-cutaneous tumor of men in Western countries. While surgery is often successful for organ-confined prostate cancer, androgen ablation therapy is the primary treatment for metastatic prostate cancer. However, this therapy is associated with several undesired side-effects, including increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. Shortening the period of androgen ablation therapy may benefit prostate cancer patients. Intermittent Androgen Deprivation therapy improves quality of life, reduces toxicity and medical costs, and delays disease progression in some patients. Cell culture and xenograft studies using androgen receptor (AR)-positive castration-resistant human prostate cancers cells (LNCaP, ARCaP, and PC-3 cells over-expressing AR) suggest that androgens may suppress the growth of AR-rich prostate cancer cells. Androgens cause growth inhibition and G1 cell cycle arrest in these cells by regulating c-Myc, Skp2, and p27Kip via AR. Higher dosages of testosterone cause greater growth inhibition of relapsed tumors. Manipulating androgen/AR signaling may therefore be a potential therapy for AR-positive advanced prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer is the fifth most common cancer overall in the world. Androgen ablation therapy is the primary treatment for metastatic prostate cancer. However, most prostate cancer patients receiving the androgen ablation therapy ultimately develop recurrent castration-resistant tumors within 1–3 years after treatment. The median overall survival time is 1–2 years after tumor relapse. Chemotherapy shows little effect on prolonging survival for patients with metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. More than 80% of prostate tumors acquire mutation or deletion of tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), a negative regulator of PI3K/Akt signaling, indicating that inhibition of PI3K/Akt might be a potential therapy for advanced prostate tumors. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is a strong antioxidant extracted from honeybee hive propolis. CAPE is a well-known NF-κB inhibitor. CAPE has been used in folk medicine as a potent anti-inflammatory agent. Recent studies indicate that CAPE treatment suppresses tumor growth and Akt signaling in human prostate cancer cells. We discuss the potential of using CAPE as a treatment for patients with advanced prostate cancer targeting Akt signaling pathway in this review article.

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SWAP-70 is a protein that has been suggested to be involved in regulation of actin rearrangement. Having discovered that an artificially-derived mutant of SWAP-70 can transform mouse embryo fibroblasts, we searched for naturally-occurring mutations in the SWAP-70 gene, finding listings for several on the Web at www.sanger.ac.uk/genetics/CGP/cosmic/, including three mutations found in ovarian cancers. (The number of such mutations has now reached 13 out of 228 tumors). We created expression vectors for the mutant SWAP-70 proteins and introduced these into NIH3T3 cells. The cells expressing the mutant SWAP-70 constructs exhibited faster growth than the parental or wild-type SWAP-70-expressing cells. In most instances, cells that are able to grow in soft agar will form tumors in nude mice. While SWAP-70-transformed cells grew in soft agar, they failed to form tumors in nude mice. This result implies that transformation by the SWAP-70 mutants is unique. The cells bearing the mutant SWAP-70 genes were sensitive to nutrient starvation, supporting the idea that they are transformed cells. However, they failed to pile up and demonstrated contact inhibition, unlike most normal transformed cells. Upon expression of human SWAP-70 genes, MEK1 was activated. This activation appeared to contribute to the saturation density of the cells. As SWAP-70 has been shown to be the last protein to receive signals from cytokines, it is likely that there is a putative feedback signaling pathway, and that disorder of this signaling pathway can transform cells. Accordingly, this may explain why SWAP-70-transformed cells have different characteristics than most transformed cells.

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