The current manuscript has been adapted from the official position statement of the UK Strength and Conditioning Association on youth resistance training. It has subsequently been reviewed and endorsed by leading professional organisations within the fields of sports medicine, exercise science and paediatrics. The authorship team for this article was selected from the fields of paediatric exercise science, paediatric medicine, physical education, strength and conditioning and sports medicine.

Objectives: To determine the impact of the application of cryotherapy on nerve conduction velocity (NCV), pain threshold (PTH) and pain tolerance (PTO). Design: A within-subject experimental design; treatment ankle (cryotherapy) and control ankle (no cryotherapy). Setting: Hospital-based physiotherapy laboratory. Participants: A convenience sample of adult male sports players (n = 23). Main outcome measures: NCV of the tibial nerve via electromyogram as well as PTH and PTO via pressure algometer. All outcome measures were assessed at two sites served by the tibial nerve: one receiving cryotherapy and one not receiving cryotherapy. Results: In the control ankle, NCV, PTH and PTO did not alter when reassessed. In the ankle receiving cryotherapy, NCV was significantly and progressively reduced as ankle skin temperature was reduced to 10˚C by a cumulative total of 32.8% (p,0.05). Cryotherapy led to an increased PTH and PTO at both assessment sites (p,0.05). The changes in PTH (89% and 71%) and PTO (76% and 56%) were not different between the iced and non-iced sites. Conclusions: The data suggest that cryotherapy can increase PTH and PTO at the ankle and this was associated with a significant decrease in NCV. Reduced NCV at the ankle may be a mechanism by which cryotherapy achieves its clinical goals. C ryotherapy has been accepted for decades as an effective, inexpensive and simple intervention for pain management after many acute sport injuries.1 2 It is widely believed that the therapeutic application of cryotherapy leads to a reduction in pain and swelling, but the physiological basis for this effect is still incompletely understood.3 4 Saeki 5 and other authors concluded that pain relief with cold application could be due to many mechanisms including altered nerve conduction velocity (NCV), inhibition of nociceptors, a reduction in muscle spasms and/or a reduction in metabolic enzyme activity levels. [6][7][8] NCV can be altered by gender, age and, more pertinently, skin temperature.9 On this basis it is plausible to propose that cryotherapy could reduce pain via an alteration in NCV. Alternatively, cryotherapy could also be effective as a counterirritant to pain via diffused noxious inhibitory controls, pain gate theory, suppressed nociceptive receptor sensitivity or via the analgesic descending pathway of the central nervous system such as endorphins.1 5 10 11 Evaluation of a counterirritant role is difficult to directly evaluate, but if cryotherapy can reduce pain threshold (PTH) and pain tolerance (PTO) independent of any effect on NCV then these processes may be more important.The aim of the current study, therefore, was to assess changes in NCV, PTH and PTO concomitantly as ankle skin temperature was reduced via cryotherapy. We hypothesise that cryotherapy reduces skin temperature to a level that decreases NCV, and that changes in NCV, are associated with an increase in PTH and PTO. METHODS SubjectsA convenience sample of 23 volunteers from local sports clubs were informed individually about the purpose, n...

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Bradford Scholars -how to deposit your paper Overview Copyright check• Check if your publisher allows submission to a repository.• Use the Sherpa RoMEO database if you are not sure about your publisher's position or email openaccess@bradford.ac.uk.

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Most biomechanical studies into changing direction focus on final contact (FC), whilst limited research has examined penultimate contact (PEN). The aim of this study was to explore the kinematic and kinetic differences between PEN and FC of cutting and pivoting in 22 female soccer players (mean±SD; age: 21±3.1years, height: 1.68±0.07m, mass: 58.9±7.3kg). Furthermore, the study investigated whether horizontal force-time characteristics during PEN were related to peak knee abduction moments during FC. Three dimensional motion analyses of cutting and pivoting on the right leg were performed using Qualysis 'Proreflex' infrared cameras (240Hz). Ground reaction forces (GRF) were collected from two AMTI force platforms (1200Hz) to examine PEN and FC. Both manoeuvres involved significantly (P<0.05) greater knee joint flexion angles, peak horizontal GRF, but lower average horizontal GRF during PEN compared to FC. Average horizontal GRF during PEN (R=-0.569, R(2)=32%, P=0.006) and average horizontal GRF ratio (R=0.466, R(2)=22%, P=0.029) were significantly related to peak knee abduction moments during the FC of cutting and pivoting, respectively. The results indicate PEN during pre-planned changing direction helps reduce loading on the turning leg where there is greater risk of injuries to knee ligaments.

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