Resuspended street dust is a source of inhalable particles in urban environments. Despite contaminated street dust being a possible health risk factor for local population, little is known about the contribution of atmospheric dust emissions and other factors to the content of toxic metals in street dust. The impact of smelting, traffic, and power plants on metal contaminates in street dust is the focus of street dust sampling at 46 locations in the Witbank area (Republic of South Africa). This area is characterized by numerous open-pit coal mines in the Karoo coal basin, which provides a cheap source of energy to numerous metallurgical smelters and ironworks and supplies coal to the coal-fired power plants located nearby. Street dust was collected on asphalt or concrete surfaces with hard plastic brushes, avoiding collecting of possible sand, soil, or plant particles. Chemical analysis was done on the <0.125 mm fraction using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry subsequent to total digestion. Exceptionally high concentrations of metals were detected with concentrations of Fe reaching 17.7%, Cr 4.3%, Mn 2%, Ni 366 mg/kg, and V 4,410 mg/kg. Factor analysis indicates three sources for the pollution. Road traffic which contributes to the high concentrations of Cu, Pb, Sb, and Sn, with the highest impacts detected in the town of Witbank. The second source is associated with the metal smelting industry, contributing to Fe, Co, Mn, and V emissions. The highest factor scores were observed around four metallurgical smelter operations, located in the Ferrobank, Highveld, and Clewer industrial areas. Impact of vanadium smelter to street dust composition could still be detected some 20 km away from the sources. Exceptionally high concentrations of Cr were observed in four samples collected next to the Ferrobank industrial area, despite Cr not being loaded in factor 2. The last source of the pollution is most probably fly ash associated with the coal-fired power plants and fly ash dumps. Elements which are associated with this source are Al, Sr, and Li. This factor is abundant in the coal mining part of the study area.
This study investigated the influence of different cooling regimes on the microstructure and consequent reactivity of belite-sulfoaluminate clinkers. The cement clinkers were synthesized by incorporating secondary raw materials, such as titanogypsum and bottom ash, to the natural raw materials. Clinker phases were determined by Rietveld quantitative phase analysis, while the distribution morphology and the incorporation of substitute ions in the phases were characterized by scanning electron microscopy using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS). Clinker reactivity was studied using isothermal calorimetry and was additionally investigated through compressive strength, which was determined for the cement prepared from the synthesized clinkers. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that, as well as the three main phases (belite, calcium sulfoaluminate, and ferrite), the clinkers contained additional minor phases (mayenite, gehlenite, arkanite, periclase, and perovskite), the ratios of which varied according to the cooling regime utilized. Microscopic observations indicated that the cooling regime also influenced the crystal size and morphology of the main phases, which consequently affected clinker reactivity. Furthermore, a smaller amount of substitute elements was incorporated in the main phases when cooling was slowed. Results showed that, in comparison to clinkers cooled at slower rates, air quenched clinkers reacted faster and exhibited a higher compressive strength at 7 days.
The potential use of steel slag from treated steel slag in belite-sulfoaluminate cements was investigated in this study. Cement clinkers with two phase compositions were synthesized, allowing the incorporation of different amounts of steel slag. The phase composition and microstructure of cement clinkers at three different sintering temperatures were studied by X-ray powder diffraction and the Rietveld method, as well as scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry. The results showed that the targeted phase composition of clinkers was achieved at a sintering temperature of 1250 °C. However, a higher amount of perovskite instead of ferrite was detected in the clinker with a higher content of Ti-bearing bauxite. Apart from the main phases, such as belite, calcium sulfoaluminate, and ferrite, several minor phases were identified, including mayenite, perovskite, periclase, and alkali sulfates. In both clinker mixtures, a higher content of MgO in the steel slags resulted in the formation of periclase. Furthermore, the hydration kinetics and compressive strength at 7 and 28 days were studied in two cements prepared from clinkers sintered at 1250 °C. As evidenced by the results of isothermal calorimetry, the hydration kinetics were also influenced by the minor clinker phases. Cement with a higher content of calcium sulfoaluminate phase developed a higher compressive strength.
The bottleneck in the process for increasing production of low CO2 mineral binders, based on BCSA (belite sulfoaluminate) clinkers, is the availability of Al-rich raw materials. For that purpose, a new registry of Al-containing secondary mineral residues (industrial and mine waste) has been developed and is presented in this paper. The methodology of creating the registry consists of three main steps: Gathering ideas, consolidation of ideas, and implementation. In order to achieve this, the following methodology was adopted: Analysis of similar registries by potential end-users and seeking potential solutions and tools to be used, and conducting 3 rounds of stakeholder consultations via workshops in order to determine crucial parameters and features the registry needs to contain. The key discussion points were about which data the registry needs to contain, who shall be the potential users, and what are the stakeholder’s expectations from the registry’s portal. Potential individual registry variables were identified as being relevant/irrelevant or available/unavailable, and potential solutions for the registry’s sustainability were explored. Each Al-rich waste/residue data entry is divided into 10 slots, describing legal status, location, quantities, chemical (REE included), mineralogical, physical and radiological properties, life-cycle assessment, additional data, and data relevancy. The registry will act as a matchmaking tool between producers/holders of Al-rich secondary raw materials and potential producers of cement clinkers.
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