The spectrum of postmortem damage in mitochondrial DNA was analyzed in a large data set of cloned sequences from ancient human specimens. The most common forms of damage observed are two complementary groups of transitions, termed "type 1" (adenine-->guanine/thymine-->cytosine) and "type 2" (cytosine-->thymine/guanine-->adenine). Single-primer extension PCR and enzymatic digestion with uracil-N-glycosylase confirm that each of these groups of transitions result from a single event, the deamination of adenine to hypoxanthine, and cytosine to uracil, respectively. The predominant form of transition-manifested damage varies by sample, though a marked bias toward type 2 is observed with increasing amounts of damage. The two transition types can be used to identify the original strand, light (L) or heavy (H), on which the initial damage event occurred, and this can increase the number of detected jumping-PCR artifacts by up to 80%. No bias toward H-strand-specific damage events is noted within the hypervariable 1 region of human mitochondria, suggesting the rapid postmortem degradation of the secondary displacement (D-loop) H strand. The data also indicate that, as damage increases within a sample, fewer H strands retain the ability to act as templates for enzymatic amplification. Last, a significant correlation between archaeological site and sample-specific level of DNA damage was detected.

The distribution of postmortem damage in mitochondrial DNA retrieved from 37 ancient human DNA samples was analyzed by cloning and was compared with a selection of published animal data. A relative rate of damage (rho(v)) was calculated for nucleotide positions within the human hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) and cytochrome oxidase subunit III genes. A comparison of damaged sites within and between the regions reveals that damage hotspots exist and that, in the HVR1, these correlate with sites known to have high in vivo mutation rates. Conversely, HVR1 subregions with known structural function, such as MT5, have lower in vivo mutation rates and lower postmortem-damage rates. The postmortem data also identify a possible functional subregion of the HVR1, termed "low-diversity 1," through the lack of sequence damage. The amount of postmortem damage observed in mitochondrial coding regions was significantly lower than in the HVR1, and, although hotspots were noted, these did not correlate with codon position. Finally, a simple method for the identification of incorrect archaeological haplogroup designations is introduced, on the basis of the observed spectrum of postmortem damage.

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One of Denmark's earliest Christian cemeteries is Kongemarken, dating to around AD 1000-1250. A feature of early Scandinavian Christian cemeteries is sex segregation, with females buried on the northern sides and males on the southern sides. However, such separation was never complete; in the few early Christian cemeteries excavated in Scandinavia, there were always a few males placed on the north side, and some females on the south side. At Kongemarken, several males with juxtaposed females were found on the north side of the cemetery. Thus, to evaluate possible kinship relationships, and more general questions of population affinity, we analyzed mitochondrial DNA extracted from nine individuals excavated in two different areas within the cemetery: one male and four females from Area 1, and one male and three females from Area 2. Using stringent laboratory protocols, each individual was unequivocally assigned to a mitochondrial haplogroup. A surprising amount of haplogroup diversity was observed (Area 1: 1 U7 (male), 1 H, 1 I, 1 J, and 1 T2; Area 2: 2 H, 1 I, and 1 T, with one H being male); even the three subjects of haplogroup H were of different subtypes. This indicates that no subjects within each area were maternally related. The observed haplogroup, U7, while common in India and in western Siberian tribes, was not previously observed among present-day ethnic Scandinavians, and haplogroup I is rare (2%) in Scandinavia. These observations suggest that the individuals living in the Roskilde region 1,000 years ago were not all members of a tightly knit local population and comprised individuals with genetic links with populations that were from much farther away.

Hereditary haemochromatosis is a common inherited disorder leading to excessive accumulation of iron in various organs. Two missense substitutions at the HFE-gene have recently been associated with the disease, 187C G and 845G A (mutations H63D and C282Y, respectively). We present a simple, rapid PCR-SSCP multiplex screening method allowing the simultaneous detection of both substitutions. Furthermore, testing the method on 420 Danish blood donors revealed the presence of a hitherto undetected third substitution in 13 individuals. The new substitution, a 193A T transversion, affects codon 65 changing the code for serine to that of cysteine (S65C). It may thus have functional consequences for the HLA class protein encoded by the HFE-gene. The allele frequencies observed were : H63D 14.8 %, C282Y 6.2 % and S65C 1.5 %, which for the two former alleles are in agreement with frequencies reported for other North European population samples. 

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The mammalian low molecular weight phosphotyrosine protein phosphatase is expressed as two distinct isoforms. The human ' fast ' and ' slow ' isoforms differ only in the sequence of an internal segment of 34 residues, and the ACP1 gene contains two adjacent exons (E3F and E3S) which encode these segments. We have previously suggested that the fast and slow isoforms are generated by mutually exclusive pre-mRNA splicing of E3F and E3S. The common alleles ACP1*A, *B and *C express the fast and slow isoforms in different ratios. The *A and *C alleles differ from *B by C 4 T transitions in E3S and E3F respectively. To test the idea that the fast : slow ratio is determined by nucleotide substitutions in the E3F-I3F-E3S region, four groups of rare ACP1 variants with unusual fast : slow ratios and the rare *E and *R alleles, expressing fast : slow ratios similar to *C and *B, respectively, were analysed. Gene segments of the I2-I3S region were amplified by PCR and analysed by SSCP and variant bands were excised and sequenced. For each of the rare isozymic variants one of six different nucleotide substitutions in E3F (ntsj42,j85,j109,j110), I3F (ntj1) and I3S (ntj8) was observed. The *E and *R alleles showed C and B sequence, respectively, in accordance with the fast : slow ratio. The results support the hypothesis that the fast : slow ratio is constitutive. 