Erythropoietin (EPO) is both hematopoietic and tissue protective, putatively through interaction with different receptors. We generated receptor subtype-selective ligands allowing the separation of EPO's bioactivities at the cellular level and in animals. Carbamylated EPO (CEPO) or certain EPO mutants did not bind to the classical EPO receptor (EPOR) and did not show any hematopoietic activity in human cell signaling assays or upon chronic dosing in different animal species. Nevertheless, CEPO and various nonhematopoietic mutants were cytoprotective in vitro and conferred neuroprotection against stroke, spinal cord compression, diabetic neuropathy, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis at a potency and efficacy comparable to EPO.

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a tissue-protective cytokine preventing vascular spasm, apoptosis, and inflammatory responses. Although best known for its role in hematopoietic lineages, EPO also affects other tissues, including those of the nervous system. Enthusiasm for recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) as a potential neuroprotective therapeutic must be tempered, however, by the knowledge it also enlarges circulating red cell mass and increases platelet aggregability. Here we examined whether erythropoietic and tissue-protective activities of rhEPO might be dissociated by a variation of the molecule. We demonstrate that asialoerythropoietin (asialoEPO), generated by total enzymatic desialylation of rhEPO, possesses a very short plasma half-life and is fully neuroprotective. In marked contrast with rhEPO, this molecule at doses and frequencies at which rhEPO exhibited erythropoiesis, did not increase the hematocrit of mice or rats. AsialoEPO appeared promptly within the cerebrospinal fluid after i.v. administration; intravenously administered radioiodine-labeled asialoEPO bound to neurons within the hippocampus and cortex in a pattern corresponding to the distribution of the EPO receptor. Most importantly, asialoEPO exhibits a broad spectrum of neuroprotective activities, as demonstrated in models of cerebral ischemia, spinal cord compression, and sciatic nerve crush. These data suggest that nonerythropoietic variants of rhEPO can cross the blood–brain barrier and provide neuroprotection.

Activation of innate immunity and deposition of blood-derived fibrin in the central nervous system (CNS) occur in autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, mechanisms linking blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption with neurodegeneration are poorly understood, and exploration of fibrin as a therapeutic target has been limited by its beneficial clotting functions. Here we report the generation of monoclonal antibody 5B8 targeted against the cryptic fibrin epitope γ 377–395 to selectively inhibit fibrin-induced inflammation and oxidative stress without interfering with clotting. 5B8 suppressed fibrin-induced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase and proinflammatory gene expression. In animal models of MS and AD, 5B8 entered the CNS and bound to parenchymal fibrin, and its therapeutic administration reduced innate immune activation and neurodegeneration. Thus, fibrin-targeting immunotherapy inhibits autoimmune- and amyloid-driven neurotoxicity and may have clinical benefit without globally suppressing innate immunity or interfering with coagulation in diverse neurological diseases.

SunanaaryEndocytosed protein antigens are believed to be fragmented in what appears to be a balance between proteolysis and MHC-mediated epitope protection, and the resulting peptide-MHC complexes are transported to the surface of the antigen-presenting cells (APC) and presented to T cells. The events that lead to antigenic peptide generation and the compartments where antigen processing takes place remains somewhat enigmatic. The importance of intracellular antigen processing has been well established; however, it is unclear whether additional processing occurs at the APC surface. To follow antigen processing, we have identified a pair ofT cell hybridomas that recognize a long vs. a short version of the same epitope. We have used prefixed APC and various protease inhibitors to demonstate that the APC surface has a considerable potential for antigen processing. Specific antibodies further identified the exopeptidase Aminopeptidase N (APN, CD13) as one of the enzymes involved in the observed cell-surface antigen processing. The NH2-terminal end of the longer peptide could, even while bound to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules, be digested by APN with dramatic consequences for T cell antigen recognition. This could be demonstrated both in cellfree systems using purified reagents and in cellular systems. Thus, MHC class II and APN may act in concert to generate the final T cell epitopes.T h cells recognize protein antigens presented in the context of MHC class II molecules. The bulk of evidence suggests that protein antigens before presentation are internalized, transported to an acidic compartment, and partially degraded (reviewed in reference 1). Some of the resulting peptides are bound to class I1 molecules (2, 3), protected against further degradation (4, 5), and transported to the APC surface for Th cell scrutiny. Implicidy, antigen processing is viewed as an intracellular event, and tittle attention is currently paid to the cell surface as an auxiliary compartment for antigen processing. We have previously found that inhibitors ofproteolytic enzymes could alter the specificity and sensitivity of the of antigenic peptide presentation by prefixed APC (6). Since prefixed APC are unable to internalize antigen and thus to perform intracellular antigen processing, these results suggested that some antigen processing can occur at the cell surface. However, we were at that time unable to establish the exact identity and localization of the enzyme(s) involved. In this paper, we have used prefixed APCs and a pair of Ak-restricted T cell hybridomas specific for hen egg lysozyme (HEL)46-tt~ and HELs0-61~, respectively, to assess cell surface antigen processing and to identify one of the enzymes involved. The APC surface was able to perform considerable antigen processing. A careful analysis of the contribution of the various groups of proteases and a panel of mAbs allowed us to identify the ectopeptidase aminopeptidase N (APN, 1 also known as CD13), as one of the enzymes involved in cell-surface a...

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) process is understood to involve the accumulation of amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain. However, attempts at targeting the main culprits, neurotoxic Aβ peptides, have thus far proven unsuccessful for improving cognitive function. Recent clinical trials with passively administrated anti-Aβ antibodies failed to slow cognitive decline in mild-moderate AD patients, but suggest that an immunotherapeutic approach could be effective in patients with mild AD. In an AD mouse model (Tg2576) we tested the immunogenicity (cellular and humoral immune responses) and efficacy (AD-like pathology) of clinical grade Lu AF20513 vaccine. Lu AF20513 induces robust “non-self” T cell responses and production of anti-Aβ antibodies that reduce AD-like pathology in the brains of Tg2576 mice without inducing microglial activation and enhancing astrocytosis or CAA. Importantly, a single immunization with Lu AF20513 induces strong humoral immunity in mice with pre-existing memory Th cells. In addition, Lu AF20513 induces strong humoral responses in guinea pigs and monkeys. Collectively, these data suggest translation of Lu AF20513 to clinical setting with aims to (i) induce therapeutically potent anti-Aβ antibody responses in patients with mild AD, particularly if they have memory Th cells generated after immunizations with conventional Tetanus Toxoid vaccine; (ii) exclude likely pathological autoreactive T cell responses.

Many different assays for measuring peptide-MHC interactions have been suggested over the years. Yet, there is no generally accepted standard method available. We have recently generated preoxidized recombinant MHC class I molecules (MHC-I) which can be purified to homogeneity under denaturing conditions (i.e., in the absence of any contaminating peptides). Such denatured MHC-I molecules are functional equivalents of "empty molecules". When diluted into aqueous buffer containing beta-2 microglobulin (beta2m) and the appropriate peptide, they fold rapidly and efficiently in an entirely peptide dependent manner. Here, we exploit the availability of these molecules to generate a quantitative ELISA-based assay capable of measuring the affinity of the interaction between peptide and MHC-I. This assay is simple and sensitive, and one can easily envisage that the necessary reagents, standards and protocols could be made generally available to the scientific community.

Considerable interest has focused on understanding how major histocompatibility complex (MHC) specificity is generated and characterizing the specificity of MHC molecules with the ultimate goal being to predict peptide binding. We have used a strategy where all possible peptides of a particular size are distributed into positional scanning combinatorial peptide libraries (PSCPL) to develop a highly efficient, universal and unbiased approach to address MHC specificity. The PSCPL approach appeared qualitatively and quantitatively superior to other currently used strategies. The average effect of any amino acid in each position was quantitated, allowing a detailed description of extended peptide binding motifs including primary and secondary anchor residues. It also identified disfavored residues which were found to be surprisingly important in shaping MHC class I specificity. Assuming that MHC class I specificity is the result of largely independently acting subsites, the binding of unknown peptides could be predicted. Conversely, this argues that MHC class I specificities consist of an array of subspecificities acting in a combinatorial mode.

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