In this meta-analysis, we examined whether children identified with reading difficulties (RD) evidence writing difficulties. We included studies comparing children with RD with (a) typically developing peers matched on age (k ϭ 87 studies) and (b) typically developing younger peers with similar reading capabilities (k ϭ 24 studies). Children identified with RD scored lower on measures of writing than their same age peers (g ϭ Ϫ1.25) when all writing scores in a study were included in the analysis. This same pattern occurred for specific measures of writing: quality (g ϭ Ϫ0.95), output (g ϭ Ϫ0.66), organization (g ϭ Ϫ0.72), sentence skills (g ϭ Ϫ0.78), vocabulary (g ϭ Ϫ1.17), syntax (g ϭ Ϫ1.07), handwriting (g ϭ Ϫ0.64), and spelling (g ϭ Ϫ1.42). Differences in the writing scores of children identified with RD and same age peers were moderated by whether the writing assessment was a norm-referenced or researcher-designed measure when all writing measures or just spelling were included in the analyses. Depth of orthography for studies involving European languages also moderated differences in the spelling scores of children identified with RD and same age peers. Finally, children identified with RD scored lower on writing than younger peers with similar reading capabilities (g ϭ Ϫ0.94) and more specifically on spelling (Ϫ0.93). We concluded that children with RD experience difficulties with writing, providing support for theoretical propositions of reading and writing connections as well as the importance of writing instruction for these students.
Educational Impact and Implications StatementThis meta-analysis of 95 studies found that children with reading difficulties also experience difficulties with writing when compared with their same-aged peers and younger-peers matched on reading capabilities. These findings demonstrate that reading and writing performance are connected, and students with reading difficulties are likely to have writing difficulties. As a result, literacy instruction needs to focus on both of these critical skills.
This online experimental study examined the roles of race and student-athlete status in college student perceptions of peers' academic and intellectual skills and favorability. College student participants (n = 376) were randomly assigned to view a photograph (i.e., Black student-athlete, Black non-student-athlete, White student-athlete, White non-student-athlete) then rated the academic skills, intelligence, and favorability of the respective condition target. Moderation analyses revealed that White student-athletes were appraised as having higher study skills, academic motivation, and problem-solving abilities than White non-student athletes. Moreover, Black student-athletes were rated as less intelligent and less favorable than Black non-student athletes. Results suggest student-athlete status may be an advantage for White studentathletes, but a disadvantage for Black student-athletes in terms of peers' academic, intelligence, and favorability appraisals relative to same-race, non-athlete peers. Findings imply that Black and White student-athletes likely face different campus experiences, wherein student-athlete status may pose risks of prejudiced peer evaluations and a potentially hostile campus climate for Black students.
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