The excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have caused several negative impacts on the environment and human health. They degrade soil fertility, build up resistance on pathogens, inhibit microbial activities and also enhance greenhouse gas emission. It is impossible and inappropriate to control plant pathogens by using chemical pesticides alone. Emphasize should be given towards organic fertilizers and pesticides to attain sustainability in agriculture. The use of Trichoderma is slowly increasing in the recent years among progressive farmers as an alternative to chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Slow rate of multiplication and colonization, susceptible to biotic and abiotic stresses, incomplete elimination of pathogens and high cost are the major problems behind its poor adoption among the farmers. To overcome these challenges different strains of Trichoderma should be identified which can multiply and colonize rapidly, least affected by environmental conditions and having wide host range on pathogens. In addition, farmers should be made aware about the importance of Trichoderma in agriculture through various extension facilities for its wide scale adoption. Trichoderma can be the viable and sustainable alternative which acts as biofertilizer, bioremediator and biocontrol agent. Nevertheless, the use of Trichoderma is limited on research activities and its application at farmers' level is not yet satisfactory. Thus, this study based on critical analysis of the research works from worldwide researchers aims to reveal the present scenario of the use of Trichoderma, its importance, modes of action, methods of application and multiplication, challenges for wide scale adoption and its appropriate solutions.

Section:There is a push for digitizing payments across the board in India. This has picked up steam after the demonetization of large currency notes in November 2016. But how ready and willing are low-income Indians (as well as low-income people in other developing countries) to adopt digital payments? This question needs more thought as there is a range of issues around mobile phone penetration, bank account features, acceptance of digital payments across value chains, and the viability of small transactions.Oh sir, this Modi ji's approach is all very well but many people here don't even know how to dial a number on a mobile phone. (low-income artisan's response to a question about the use of digital services after demonetization)

Mushrooms are known for several nutritional and medicinal benefits and are cultivated worldwide. Several fungal contaminants of mushrooms have been serving as the major restraining factor in the growing mushroom industry for a long time. Fungal contaminants like Trichoderma spp., Mycogone spp., Lecanicillium spp., Cladobotryum spp., Coprinus spp., Sependonium spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, and Cephalothecum roseum among many, are found to infect mushroom crops at different stages from spawn run period to maturation of fruiting bodies. These contaminants may reduce yield and/or degrade the quality of fruiting bodies of the mushroom causing economic losses. These contaminants are usually peculiar in terms of their symptomatology on the substrates, disease cycle, epidemiological requirements, and yield losses.  Most of these contaminants come from poorly sterilized substrates. Several sterilization techniques like steam sterilization, hot water sterilization, alkalinization, bleaching, and chemical sterilization can be employed to eliminate pre-existing contaminants and each technique has its own relative advantage over others. Besides, biological control involving botanicals and live antagonists can also be used as prophylactic sterilant or as therapeutic sprays. Biological control measures are friendly to the environment and human health. Unlike chemical fungicides (used as sterilant or spray), biological control measures don’t inhibit mushroom mycelial growth and even don’t raise the problem of pesticide resistance in pathogens. Roguing out of infected mushroom fruiting bodies or beds, mushroom house sanitation, and management of vector population are also equally important in preventing the spread of the fungal diseases of mushrooms. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 9(2): 80-93

Introduction: Insomnia has found to have many effects and risks on young adult and also has reduced economic productivity of the individuals as well as country. The prevalence of insomnia in Nepalese college students might be high as there is ineffectiveness of education system in addition to the further practical courses. Thus, the main aim of this study was to find out the prevalence of insomnia and its associated factors among young adult in selected college of Kathmandu. Methods: A cross -sectional descriptive study was conducted among 421 young adult in selected college of Kathmandu Valley. Students were selected conveniently. Data were collected after obtaining ethical approval. Semi-structured questionnaire and Insomnia Severity Index was used to assess the level of insomnia. Data were entered and analyzed using SPSS V 20. Univariate analysis was done and presented using frequency and percentage. Bivariate study was done by using the chi-sq. test in which p≤ 0.05 was considered for association between dependent and independent variable. Results: Out of 421 young adults, 379 were found to have insomnia. Insomnia was significantly associated with the use social media (0.013), the living condition (0.027) and economic status of the respondent (0.024). Conclusions: The study had shown high prevalence of insomnia among students in selected colleges of Kathmandu valley. Thus, the concerned authorities should be aware about insomnia and its health impact in young adults and should plan and implement various program for the prevention and control of the insomnia and its long term impact.

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The research was conducted in Putalibazar, Bhirkot, and Waling municipality and Arjunchaupari rural municipality of Syangja district , Nepal in 2021 to assess the status of the primary nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium), pH, and soil organic matter of the cultivated mandarin orchards located at different altitudes. There were six treatments: three in north-facing namely <900 meter above sea level (masl), 900-1100 masl, and >1100 masl, and three in south-facing namely <900 masl, 900-1100 masl, and >1100 masl. These treatments were replicated 4 times each in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). A total of 72 soil samples were taken from 0 to 30 cm soil depth in ‘V’ shaped pattern from last week of March to the first week of April. Analysis of soil samples was done in the regional soil testing laboratory Pokhara, Kaski. The altitude range had a considerable effect on soil nutrient status except for phosphorous and potassium availability. Both pH and soil organic matter content were found increasing with the increase in altitude. Soil pH level was found increasing with increase in altitude from 5.62 in <900 masl to 6.70 in altitude >1100 masl in south facing slope. Highest organic matter content (5.76%) was recorded in 900-1100 masl of north facing slope followed by lowest 3.76% in <900 masl in south facing slope. Similarly, highest nitrogen content (0.28%) was recorded in 900-1100 masl of north facing slope followed by lowest (0.18) in >1100 masl in south facing slope. Phosphorus and potassium were found highest in 900-1100 masl of both north and south facing slope. The findings of the research showed that the altitude range of 900-1100 masl and north-facing slope was suitable for mandarin cultivation from the nutrient status point of view.

A simple case study was conducted concerning farmers’ perception towards agriculture and livestock insurance in Birendranagar municipality of Surkhet valley. The foremost intention of this research survey was to appraise the current scenario of crop and livestock insurance with constraints and future prospects regarding minimization of agriculture risk and losses among farmers of study area. Prior to the household survey, a key informant survey was conducted with personnel of the Birendranagar municipality office. A total of 100 farmers were selected by random sampling technique and scheduled interviews were carried out during Nov-Dec 2021. The study included 63 non-insurers and 37 insurers as respondents. The average income of insurer farmers was found to be higher than the non-insurer farmers. Majority (78%) of insurance adopters were livestock insurers. More than half (51.72%) of livestock insurers perceived the damage from accident and death of animals as a major risk. Majority of the crop insurers (75%) perceived damage from adverse climatic conditions as a major risk. Income stability was perceived as the most important benefit gained from joining insurance with Relative Importance Index (RII) 0.784. Insurers were found to be most satisfied with the policy of risk coverage with Relative Satisfaction Index (RSI) 0.681. The study divulged lack of information about benefits of insurance and awareness related to insurance services as the major factor behind not joining insurance by more than two-third of respondents (70.49%). Majority of insurers (62.17%) asserted delaying in claim payment as the major drawback of insurance service providers. Improving access of farmers’ on agriculture credit, effective publicity of insurance schemes and awareness generation programs regarding risk management strategies can play a crucial role to minimize risks related to crop and livestock production in near future.

Fall armyworm has been recently introduced to Nepal. In a very less time, the invasive pest has rapidly spread throughout the country causing 21% of yield loss in the total production of maize. It has the potential to attack all the crop stages of maize. If the effect of fall armyworm is neglected, it can result in the loss of 53% in the total production threatening food security and living of millions of farming households. Keeping the fact in mind, two blocks from the Tikapur Municipality of Kailali district, Nepal were surveyed to understand the infestation status of FAW in maize, farmer’s perception, implemented management practices at the local level for its control, and its efficacy. Lack of knowledge regarding the identification and control measures has led to more than 50% of the household being infected by FAW. The average yield loss has reached 129.058 kg/ha in block 10 and 93.052 kg/ha in block 24. The average percentage of infestation has drooped to only 4.15% when all the measure of management was applied in an integrated way. Our study concluded that there is a pivotal need for extension knowledge to farmers on the identification of the pest, its life cycle, effective management practices, and tie for its implementation.