Abstract. Fibre optic distributed temperature sensing (DTS) is widely applied in Earth sciences. Many applications require a spatial resolution higher than that provided by the DTS instrument. Measurements at these higher resolutions can be achieved with a fibre optic cable helically wrapped on a cylinder. The effect of the probe construction, such as its material, shape, and diameter, on the performance has been poorly understood. In this article, we study data sets obtained from a laboratory experiment using different cable and construction diameters, and three field experiments using different construction characteristics. This study shows that the construction material, shape, diameter, and cable attachment method can have a significant influence on DTS temperature measurements. We present a qualitative and quantitative approximation of errors introduced through the choice of auxiliary construction, influence of solar radiation, coil diameter, and cable attachment method. Our results provide insight into factors that influence DTS measurements, and we present a number of solutions to minimize these errors. These practical considerations allow designers of future DTS measurement set-ups to improve their environmental temperature measurements.

Distributed temperature sensing has proven a useful technique for geoscientists to obtain spatially distributed temperature data. When studies require high‐resolution temperature data in three spatial dimensions, current practices to enhance the spatial resolution do not suffice. For example, double‐diffusive phenomena induce sharp and small‐scale temperature patterns in water bodies subject to thermohaline gradients. This article presents a novel approach for a 3‐D dense distributed temperature sensing setup, the design of which can be customized to the required spatial resolution in each dimension. Temperature is measured along fiber‐optic cables that can be arranged as needed. In this case, we built a dense cage of very thin (1.6 mm) cables to ensure that interference with flow patterns was minimal. Application in water bodies with double‐diffusion‐induced sharp temperature gradients shows that the setup is well able to capture small‐scale temperature patterns and even detects small unsuspected seeps and potential salt‐fingers. However, the potential effect of the setup on the flow patterns requires further study.

In this article, we rehabilitate the integrating rising bubble technique as an effective means of obtaining discharge measurements. Since Sargent (1981, 1982a), the technique has not been applied widely, mainly as a result of practical difficulties. We hypothesize that modern image processing techniques can greatly improve the rising bubble technique. We applied the technique in both a laboratory setup and a field study, after determining the bubble rising velocity for our nozzles in the specific case. During our measurements, we captured digital photographs of the bubble envelope at the water surface, each picture being a single measurement of the discharge. The photographs were corrected for lens distortion and reprojected so that accurate distances on water surface level could be obtained. This easy digital procedure resulted in accurate discharge measurements, even when turbulence was involved and the averages of multiple image analyses yielded good results. The study shows that the rising bubble technique can be a preferable discharge gauging technique in some situations. Recent developments in image processing facilitate the method substantially

Abstract. Fibre optic Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) is widely applied in earth sciences. Many applications require a spatial resolution higher than the provided by the DTS instrument. Measurements at these higher resolutions can be achieved with a fibre optic cable helically wrapped on a cylinder. The effect of the probe construction, such as its material, shape, and diameter, on the performance has been poorly understood. In this article, we study datasets obtained from a laboratory experiment using different cable and construction diameters, and three field experiments using different construction characteristics. This study shows that the construction material, shape, diameter, and cable attachment method can have a significant influence on DTS temperature measurements. We present a qualitative and quantitative approximation of errors introduced through the choice of auxiliary construction, influence of solar radiation, coil diameter, and cable attachment method. Our results provide insight into factors that influence DTS measurements, and we present a number of solutions to minimize these errors. These practical considerations allow designers of future DTS measurement setups to improve their environmental temperature measurements.

Abstract:The urban heat island effect was first described 200 years ago, but the development of ways to mitigate heat in urban areas reaches much further into the past. Uchimizu is a 17th century Japanese tradition, in which water is sprinkled around houses to cool the ground surface and air by evaporation. Unfortunately, the number of published studies that have quantified the cooling effects of uchimizu are limited and only use surface temperature or air temperature at a single height as a measure of the cooling effect. In this research, a dense three-dimensional Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) setup was used to measure air temperature with high spatial and temporal resolution within one cubic meter of air above an urban surface. Six experiments were performed to systematically study the effects of (1) the amount of applied water; (2) the initial surface temperature; and (3) shading on the cooling effect of uchimizu. The measurements showed a decrease in air temperature of up to 1.5 • C at a height of 2 m, and up to 6 • C for near-ground temperature. The strongest cooling was measured in the shade experiment. For water applied in quantities of 1 mm and 2 mm, there was no clear difference in cooling effect, but after application of a large amount of water (>5 mm), the strong near-ground cooling effect was approximately twice as high as when only 1 mm of water was applied. The dense measurement grid used in this research also enabled us to detect the rising turbulent eddies created by the heated surface.

Worldwide, climate change increases the frequency and intensity of heavy rainstorms. The increasing severity of consequent floods has major socio-economic impacts, especially in urban environments. Urban flood modelling supports the assessment of these impacts, both in current climate conditions and for forecasted climate change scenarios. Over the past decade, model frameworks that allow flood modelling in real-time have been gaining widespread popularity. Flood4castRTF is a novel urban flood model that applies a grid-based approach at a modelling scale coarser than most recent detailed physically based models. Automatic model set-up based on commonly available GIS data facilitates quick model building in contrast with detailed physically based models. The coarser grid scale applied in Flood4castRTF pursues a better agreement with the resolution of the forcing rainfall data and allows speeding up of the calculations. The modelling approach conceptualises cell-to-cell interactions while at the same time maintaining relevant and interpretable physical descriptions of flow drivers and resistances. A case study comparison of Flood4castRTF results with flood results from two detailed models shows that detailed models do not necessarily outperform the accuracy of Flood4castRTF with flooded areas in-between the two detailed models. A successful model application for a high climate change scenario is demonstrated. The reduced data need, consisting mainly of widely available data, makes the presented modelling approach applicable in data scarce regions with no terrain inventories. Moreover, the method is cost effective for applications which do not require detailed physically based modelling.

The three-dimensional (3-D) modelling of water systems involving double-diffusive processes is challenging due to the large computation times required to solve the flow and transport of constituents. In systems that approach axisymmetry around a central location, computation times can be reduced by applying a quasi 3-D axisymmetric model setup. This article applies the Navier-Stokes equations described in cylindrical coordinates, and integrates them to guarantee mass and 5 momentum conservation. The discretized equations are presented in a way that a Cartesian finite volume model can be easily extended to this quasi 3-D framework, which is demonstrated by the implementation into a non-hydrostatic free-surface flow model. This model employs temperature and salinity dependent densities, molecular diffusivities, and kinematic viscosity. Four qualitative case studies demonstrate a good behaviour with respect to expected density and diffusivity driven 10 flow and stratification in shallow water bodies. A fifth case study involves a new validation method that quantifies the radial expansion of a dense water layer developing from a central inflow at the bottom of a shallow water body.

<p>In the framework of the Small Reservoirs Project (www.smallreservoirs.org), evaporation in semi-arid areas from open water has been measured through water balances, floating evaporation pans, and eddy covariance measurements. Each method showed that the actual evaporation was 30%-50% less than the evaporation from open water as predicted by Penman. During daytime, this reduced evaporation may be due to the formation of a stable internal boundary layer over the reservoirs. One would expect that this evaporation reducing effect would at least partially be offset during the night when the warm water would induce strong turbulent transport through an unstable local boundary layer. Through detailed Distributed Temperature Sensing observation in ponds, lakes, and reservoirs in different parts of the world, it was observed that during cloudless nights with low wind speeds or no wind, the top layer (1cm-2cm) of the water was one to two degrees colder than the air immediately above it. Such a temperature difference would again set up a stable layer, hindering turbulent transport of heat and water vapor into the atmosphere. </p><p> </p><p>It was hypothesized that outward longwave radiation, which during cloudless nights can quickly reach 200 W/m2, would cause a thin layer of cold water on top of the warmer water body. Through conduction, this cold layer would grow until it would become unstable, at which point the surface would be (partially) refreshed through downward finger flow. Detailed numerical simulations of the heat transport in the water body were undertaken to test this hypothesis. The numerical results indeed showed the cooling of the top layer and formation of instabilities with characteristic length and time scales. To test these results and the general concept, a MacGyver-worthy laboratory set-up was built consisting of an insulated 20 liter bucket, covered by a double hemispheric dome of perspex. On the inside of the dome, a thermal camera was attached at the apex. The space between the inner and outer dome was filled with dry ice to create an inside surface temperature of about 230K. After the dry ice was added, surface cooling was observed, followed by the formation of zones with upwelling warm water and downwelling cold water. These circulation cells were comparable in size to the simulated ones. A detailed analysis of spatial and temporal scales of the laboratory and simulation results will be presented.</p>