The issue of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the water environment has gained increasing interest worldwide. To determine the nature and extent of this problem for Poland, this paper presents a review of research on the presence of PPCPs in Poland, looking at results for different water samples, including wastewater (before and after treatment), landfill leachate, surface water (standing water bodies and rivers), seawater, groundwater and drinking water. The review is based on over 50 scientific articles and dissertations referring to studies of PPCPs. It also briefly outlines possible sources and the fate of PPCPs in the aquatic environment. The review of Polish research has revealed that studies have previously covered at least 39 PPCP groups (270 compounds in total). These studies focused mainly on wastewater and rivers, and only a few concerned landfill leachate and seawater. They most often reported on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotics. The highest concentrations of the analysed PPCPs were found mainly in raw wastewater (e.g., naproxen, up to 551,960 ng/L), but they were also occasionally found in surface water (e.g., azithromycin, erythromycin, irbesartan and metoprolol) and in groundwater (e.g., N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide, known as DEET, up to 17,280 ng/L). Extremely high concentrations of bisphenol A (up to 2,202,000 ng/L) and diclofenac (up to 108,340 ng/L) were found in landfill leachate. Although numerous substances have been detected, PPCPs are still not monitored regularly, which makes it difficult to obtain a clear understanding of their incidence in the water environment.

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This paper addresses groundwater pollution and the potential presence of pesticides within the catchment areas of two reservoirs that are sources of drinking water. The two reservoirs are Goczałkowice and Kozłowa Góra, both in Southern Poland. Agricultural and rural areas dominate both catchments. Archival data showed local groundwater contamination with nitrates. This indicated the possible presence of pesticides in shallow groundwater. In total, 13 groundwater samples from shallow sandy aquifers were collected. All the samples were tested for the presence of 35 organophosphate pesticides and 28 organochlorine pesticides. Additionally, in order to determine the current groundwater conditions, physicochemical parameters were measured in the field, and water samples were subjected to analysis of their chemical composition (incl. the determination of nitrates). The research outcomes showed that pesticides were not detected above the detection limits in any of the samples. Due to variations in the persistence and degradation rates of pesticides, the occurrence of these substances in the groundwater environment and the possibility of their migration to aquifers should not be completely excluded. Natural processes and factors (e.g., sorption, biodegradation, hydrolysis and redox conditions) may gradually reduce the pesticide concentrations in groundwater. The chemical analyses revealed high concentrations of nitrates in the groundwater. This suggests the possible influence of agriculture and fertilizer application on groundwater quality; however, a proportion of NO3- ions may be connected with improper sewage management within the two catchments. The absence of pesticides in groundwater impacted by agriculture may result from processes occurring in the aquifer and the rapid degradation of these compounds due to photolysis and prevailing weather conditions. In the vicinity of dwellings, nitrates also originate from domestic wastewater. Thus, the occurrence of pesticides in groundwater contaminated with NO3 cannot always be expected.

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The application of combined research methods, such as hydrochemical and isotopic analyses, facilitates understanding of the origin of water constituents and migration of contaminants in the aquatic environment. The presented study attempts to identify contamination sources affecting water quality within the Kozłowa Góra reservoir catchment area (southern Poland). A total of 100 water samples were collected from surface water (the Brynica river, streams, and the reservoir) and groundwater (a Quarternary aquifer) in four time periods. During fieldwork, the physicochemical parameters were measured (temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, redox potential, and dissolved oxygen). The chemical analysis included the determination of major ions (HCO3−, SO42−, Cl−, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+), nutrients (NO3−, NO2−, NH4+, and PO43−), and total organic carbon. The study was complemented by isotopic analysis of sulphur and oxygen in sulphate, which enabled a more precise identification of stressors affecting water quality in different parts of the catchment area. Chemical and isotopic results (δ34S = 4.38–13.99‰; δ18O 3.59–13.30‰) revealed that wastewater discharges and agricultural activities have a significant influence on the chemistry of the Brynica River and other streams. At some sampling points, a lower quality of water was manifested by elevated concentrations of NO3− (up to 22.6 mg/L) and several other ions (e.g., up to 114 mg/L for Cl−, up to 51.52 mg/L for NH4+, and 12.5 mg/L for PO43−). The quality of groundwater was deteriorated mainly by infiltration of sewage from leaky septic tanks. The level of groundwater contamination varied depending on the location, as higher concentrations of major ions and values of electrical conductivity were observed in residential areas. The Brynica river, streams, and groundwater recharge the drinking water reservoir, and thus its quality depends on these sources. A dilution of water and the presence of biochemical processes led to a reduction of contaminant concentrations in the Kozłowa Góra reservoir (down to 3.5 mg/L for NO3−, 32 mg/L for Cl−, 0.21 mg/L for NH4+, and <0.05 mg/L for PO43−) compared to water in the river and streams supplying the reservoir. The study revealed the role of wastewater discharge and agricultural activities in the evolution of surface water chemistry. The results will be used in further research on the origin and migration of other substances in water, including microcontaminants.

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