Knowledge of risk factors and their effects is vital for successfully preventing and reducing child neglect. This study provides a meta-analytic update of research on risk factors for child neglect. A total of 315 effect sizes were extracted from 36 primary studies and classified into 24 risk domains. Effects of 15 risk domains were significant and ranged from small (r = .110) to large (r = .372) in magnitude. Most risks were found at the parental level, such as having a history of antisocial behavior/criminal offending (r = .372); having a history of mental/psychiatric problems (r = . 259); having mental/physical problems (r = .207); and experiences of abuse in own childhood (r = .182). The effect of mother-related risk factors was not significantly different from the effect of father-related risk factors. It is concluded that child neglect is determined by multiple risk domains and that especially parent-related risk factors are important in preventing and reducing child neglect. Implications of the results for clinical practice are discussed.

Individuals with sex chromosome trisomies ([SCT], XXX, XXY, and XYY)) are at increased risk for neurodevelopmental problems, given that a significant portion of the sex chromosome genes impact brain functioning. An elevated risk for psychopathology has also been described, including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present study aimed at identifying early markers of ADHD, providing the first investigation of ADHD symptomology in very young children with SCT. The variety, type, and severity of ADHD symptomology in 1-6-year-old children with SCT (n = 104) were compared with population-based controls (n = 101) using the strengths and weaknesses of ADHD symptoms and normal-behavior (SWAN) parent-report questionnaire. ADHD symptomology was significantly more prevalent in SCT and already present from toddlerhood on, compared to controls. ADHD inattention symptoms were significantly increased in all karyotypes (XXX, XXY, and XYY), boys with XYY also showed significantly more hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms than controls.Inattentiveness was more pronounced with increasing age for SCT, in contrast to controls. Within the SCT group, 24% of the children had significantly elevated ADHD symptoms at a clinical level. Already from an early age on, SCT is associated with a risk for ADHD, suggesting that its neurodevelopmental risk lies anchored in early brain maturation. Studying this genetically vulnerable population allows for the prospective study of risk markers to facilitate early and preventive interventions.

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Although sex chromosomal trisomies (SCT) in children are highly prevalent and associated with an increased risk for neurodevelopmental difficulties including socio-emotional problems, little is known about underlying mechanisms that could drive this risk. Studying emotional reactivity and expressivity of young children with SCT in early childhood could identify deviations in early emotional development and potentially serve as risk markers to guide clinical care in developing interventions. Participants in the current study were 90 SCT children and 97 population-based controls, aged 1 to 7 years, who experienced a stress-inducing event in which physiological (heart rate) and observational data (expression of negative emotions) were collected. Results showed early disturbances in the emotion system of young children with SCT, in terms of blunted but prolonged emotional reactivity and a reduced emotional expressivity in response to stress. Further, the concordance between emotional reactivity (arousal response) and expressivity was significantly lower in SCT, compared to controls. Given the significant impact of emotions on adaptive day-today functioning, deviations in processing emotions could be an important underlying mechanism in explaining the heterogeneity and variability in developmental outcomes often described in individuals with SCT.

Sex chromosomal trisomies (SCT) are associated with impairments in executive functions in school‐aged children, adolescents, and adults. However, knowledge on preschool development of executive functions is limited but greatly needed to guide early intervention. The current study examined emerging executive functions in young children with SCT. Participants were 72 SCT children and 70 population‐based controls, aged 3–7 years, who completed a neurocognitive assessment of both global executive function (MEFS) and verbal executive function skills (NEPSY Word Generation). Caregivers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) questionnaire to capture real‐world behavioral manifestations of impairments in executive functions. Results showed that impairments were significantly more prevalent in SCT than in controls and already present from 3 years, specifically verbal executive functions and working memory. Broader more pronounced impairments were found in older children with SCT. Age was significantly related to executive functions, but specific domains showed different relations with age. For example, deficits in planning and organizing remained evident with older age in SCT whereas it declined with age in controls. Impairments in executive functions were present across different levels of intelligence. Already at an early age, impairments across executive functions should be considered part of the neurodevelopmental profile of SCT, which appear more prominent at later age. Future studies should investigate developmental pathways of executive functions in SCT, given its relevance in cognitive, social, and emotional development. Executive functions should be screened and monitored in children with SCT and could be an important target of preventive intervention.

Risicofactoren voor Verwaarlozing: Een Meta-Analyse Inleiding. Kennis over risicofactoren is essentieel om verwaarlozing van kinderen te voorkomen. In deze studie werd een meta-analyse uitgevoerd naar verschillende risicofactoren voor verwaarlozing. Methode. 315 effectgroottes werden afgeleid uit 36 studies, en geclassificeerd in 24 risicodomeinen. Van elk risicodomein werd een effect geschat waarna verschillende variabelen werden getoetst als moderator, waaronder type verwaarlozing, en geslacht en etniciteit van onderzoeksdeelnemers. Resultaten. Het effect van 15 risicodomeinen was significant en varieerde in sterkte van klein (r = .110) tot groot (r = .372). De sterkste risico's bleken oudergerelateerde factoren, zoals een verleden van antisociaal gedrag; mentale of psychiatrische problemen (actueel of in het verleden); een laag opleidingsniveau van ouders; en slachtofferschap van verwaarlozing of mishandeling in de eigen kindertijd. Discussie. Geconcludeerd werd dat meerdere risicofactoren op verschillende niveaus (gezinsniveau, ouderniveau en kindniveau) kunnen bijdragen aan het risico op verwaarlozing van kinderen, maar dat met name ouder-en gezinsfactoren belangrijk zijn in preventie. Trefwoorden: verwaarlozing, risicofactoren, meta-analyse Risk Factors for Child Neglect: A Meta-Analytic Review Objective. Knowledge of risk factors is essential for successfully preventing child neglect. In this review, a meta-analysis of studies on risk factors for child neglect was performed. Method. 315 effect sizes were extracted from 36 primary studies and classified into 24 risk domains. An effect was estimated for each risk domain, after which different variables, such as type of neglect and a sample's ethnicity and gender, were tested as moderator. Results. Effects of 15 risk domains were significant and ranged from small (r = .110) to large (r = .372) in magnitude. The strongest risk factors were parental-related, such as having a history of antisocial behavior; mental or psychiatric problems (both current and past problems); a low level of parental education; and victimization of abuse in own childhood. Discussion. It was concluded that family, parent, and child factors can increase the risk for child neglect, but that parent-related risk factors are most important in prevention.

The presence of an additional X or Y chromosome (sex chromosome trisomies, SCT) is associated with an increased risk for neurodevelopmental difficulties, including socio-emotional problems, across the life-span. Studying emotion regulation in young children with SCT could signal deviations in emotional development that serve as risk markers to guide clinical care. This study explored the presence and variety of emotion regulation strategies in 75 SCT children and 81 population-based controls, aged 1 to 7 years, during a frustration-inducing event in which physiological (heart rate) and observational data (behavioral responses) were collected. Children with SCT were equally physiologically aroused by the event as compared to controls. However, they showed more emotion regulation difficulties in terms of behavior compared to controls that was not explicable in terms of differences in general intellectual functioning. Specifically, they had a more limited range of behavioral alternatives and tended to rely longer on inefficient strategies with increasing age. The field of practice should be made aware of these early risk findings regarding emotion regulation in SCT, which may potentially lay at the foundation of later socio-emotional problems, given the significant impact of emotion regulation on child and adult mental health outcomes. The current results may help to design tailored interventions to reduce the impact of the additional sex chromosome on adaptive functioning, psychopathology, and quality of life.

Investigating sex chromosome trisomies (SCT) may help in understanding neurodevelopmental pathways underlying risk for neurobehavioral problems and psychopathology. Knowledge about the neurobehavioral phenotype is needed to improve clinical care and early intervention for the increasing number of early diagnosed children with the recent introduction of noninvasive prenatal screening. The TRIXY Early Childhood Study is a longitudinal study designed to identify early neurodevelopmental risks in children with sex chromosome trisomy, aged 1 to 7 years. This review summarizes results from the TRIXY Early Childhood Study, focusing on early behavioral symptoms in areas of Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and communication disorders, and underlying neurocognitive mechanisms in domains of language, emotion regulation, executive functioning, and social cognition. Behavioral symptoms were assessed through structured behavior observation and parental questionnaires. Neurocognition was measured using performance tests, eyetracking, and psychophysiological measures of arousal. In total, 209 children aged 1 to 7 years were included: 107 children with SCT (33 XXX, 50 XXY, 24 XYY) and 102 age-matched population controls. Study outcomes showed early behavioral symptoms in young children with SCT, and neurocognitive vulnerabilities, already from an early age onwards. Neurobehavioral and neurocognitive difficulties tended to become more pronounced with increasing age, and were rather robust; independent of specific karyotype, pre/postnatal diagnosis or ascertainment strategy. A more longitudinal perspective on neurodevelopmental ‘at risk’ pathways is warranted, also including studies assessing effectiveness of targeted early interventions. Neurocognitive markers that signal differences in neurodevelopment may prove to be helpful in this. Focusing on early development of language, social cognition, emotion regulation, and executive functioning may help in uncovering early essential mechanisms of (later) neurobehavioral outcome, allowing for more targeted support and early intervention.