Overexploitation is a significant threat to biodiversity, with live capture of millions of animals annually. An improved understanding of live capture of primates is needed, especially for Madagascar's threatened lemurs. Our objectives were to provide the first quantitative estimates of the prevalence, spatial extent, correlates and timing of lemur ownership, procurement methods, within-country movements, and numbers and duration of ownership. Using semi-structured interviews of 1,093 households and 61 transporters, across 17 study sites, we found that lemur ownership was widespread and affected a variety of taxa. We estimate that 28,253 lemurs have been affected since 2010. Most lemurs were caught by owners and kept for either short (≤ 1 week) or long (≥ 3 years) periods. The live capture of lemurs in Madagascar is not highly organized but may threaten several Endangered and Critically Endangered species.

BackgroundRetraction is among the most important basic behaviors of anthozoan Cnidaria polyps and is achieved through the coordinated contraction of at least six different muscle groups. Across the Anthozoa, these muscles range from unrecognizable atrophies to massive hypertrophies, producing a wide diversity of retraction abilities and functional morphologies. The marginal musculature is often the single largest component of the retraction mechanism and is composed of a diversity of muscular, attachment, and structural features. Although the arrangements of these features have defined the higher taxonomy of Zoanthidea for more than 100 years, a decade of inferring phylogenies from nucleotide sequences has demonstrated fundamental misconceptions of their evolution.ResultsHere we expand the diversity of known marginal muscle forms from two to at least ten basic states and reconstruct the evolution of its functional morphology across the most comprehensive molecular phylogeny available. We demonstrate that the evolution of these forms follows a series of transitions that are much more complex than previously hypothesized and converge on similar forms multiple times. Evolution of the marginal musculature and its attachment and support structures are partially scaled according to variation in polyp and muscle size, but also vary through evolutionary allometry.ConclusionsAlthough the retraction mechanisms are diverse and their evolutionary histories complex, their morphologies are largely reflective of the evolutionary relationships among Zoanthidea higher taxa and may offer a key feature for integrative systematics. The convergence on similar forms across multiple linages of Zoanthidea mirrors the evolution of the marginal musculature in another anthozoan order (Actiniaria). The marginal musculature varies through evolutionary allometry of functional morphologies in response to requirements for additional force and resistance, and the specific ecological and symbiotic functions of individual taxa.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0406-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Table S1: Search parameters used in ISI Web of Science. General search terms used for all mechanisms were (non-native* OR nonnative* OR invasi* OR introduc* OR non-indigenous OR nonindigenous OR alien OR exotic OR invade*) AND (estuar* OR marine OR coastal OR ocean* OR sea OR *tidal), followed by mechanism-specific terms outlined below. Search results were then refined using Web of Science tools to those pertaining only to Marine and Freshwater Biology, and all research areas that were clearly not relevant (e.g., not biological) were excluded. All remaining papers were then individually evaluated for relevance. Over 2500 papers were evaluated for negative interactions alone. Mechanism Search terms Negative Interactions AND ("biotic resistance" OR "invasion resistance" OR diversity OR "diversity invasibility" OR "empty niche*" OR "limiting similarity" OR "Darwin's naturalization" OR pre-adaptation OR "enemy release" OR "enemy escape" OR "natural enem*" OR "native enem*" OR allelopath* OR "chemical defense*" OR "novel weapon*" OR "novel chemical*" OR predat* OR herbivor* OR parasit* OR compet* OR consum*) Positive Interactions AND (meltdown OR facilitat* OR mutual* OR "positive interact*" OR commensal* OR "positive species interact*") Invader Traits AND (tolerance* OR tolerate* OR constrain* OR thermal OR heat OR cold OR freez* OR hypoxia OR copper OR "heavy metal" OR cadmium OR salinity OR desiccation OR nutrient* OR sedimentation OR antifouling OR UV OR ultraviolet OR deoxygenation OR dark* OR turbidity OR wave OR "growth rate" OR "rapid growth" OR maturation OR fecundity OR plasticity OR larval OR "body size" OR morphology OR reproduction OR "life history" OR metabolism OR behavior) AND (trait*) Post Introduction Evolution AND (EICA OR evolut* OR "rapid evolut*" OR hybrid* OR bottleneck*) Invasive Taxon Invasive Phylum Type of Study Consumption or Competition Focal Interaction Invasion Enhanced or Limited Citation Marenzelleria arctia Annelida E Competition Single-Species Competition Enhanced (Karlson et al. 2011) Marenzelleria cf. wireni Annelida O Competition Single-Species Competition Enhanced (Essink 1999) Marenzelleria cf. wireni Annelida O Competition Single-Species Competition Enhanced (Essink et al. 1998) Marenzelleria viridis Annelida E Competition Single-Species Competition Enhanced (Kotta & Ólafsson 2003) Artemia franciscana Arthropoda O Consumption Parasitism Enhanced (Georgiev et al. 2007) Balanus glandula Arthropoda O Competition Single-Species Competition Enhanced (Vallarino & Elias 1997) Caprella mutica Arthropoda E Competition Diversity (Multi-species Competition) Enhanced (Shucksmith et al. 2009 Carcinus maenas Arthropoda O Consumption Parasitism Enhanced (Blakeslee et al. 2009) Carcinus maenas Arthropoda E Consumption Predation Limited (deRivera et al. 2005) Carcinus maenas Arthropoda E Consumption Predation Limited (Hunt & Yamada 2003) Carcinus maenas Arthropoda O Consumption & Competition Predation & Single-Species Competition Limited (Jensen et al. 2002) Carcinus maenas Arthropoda E Consump...

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Biodiversity loss is a critical sustainability issue, and companies are beginning to seek ways to assess their biodiversity performance. Initiatives to date have developed biodiversity indicators for specific business contexts (e.g., spatial scales-from site, to product, to regional, or corporate scales); however, many are not widely translatable across different contexts making it challenging for businesses seeking indicators to manage their biodiversity performance. By synthesising the steps of common conservation and business decision-making systems, we propose a framework to support more comprehensive development of quantitative biodiversity indicators, for a range of business contexts. The framework integrates experience from existing tried-andtested conservation frameworks. We illustrate how our framework offers a pathway for businesses to assess their biodiversity performance and demonstrate responsible management by mitigating and reversing their biodiversity impacts and sustaining their dependencies, enabling them to demonstrate their contribution to emerging global biodiversity targets (e.g., Convention on Biological Diversity post-2020 targets).

Lemurs are the most threatened group of mammals on earth. Lemur catta (ring-tailed lemur) represents one of the most iconic lemur species and faces numerous anthropogenic threats in the wild. In this study, we present population estimates from 32 sites across the range of L. catta, collected from primary and secondary data sources, to assess the number of ring-tailed lemurs left in the wild. We estimate that there are approximately 2,220 individual L. catta remaining in the 32 sites considered. We note local extinctions of populations of L. catta in at least 12 of the 32 sites examined, and that significantly more extinctions occurred in areas without some form of protection. This decrease in extant populations could represent a decrease of more than 95% of all ring-tailed lemurs in Madagascar since the year 2000. While these results should be considered preliminary, we stress the rapid decline of the species and note that habitat loss, bushmeat hunting and the illegal pet trade are driving populations to local extinction. Based on the data presented here, urgent and immediate funding and conservation action are crucial to ensure the viability of the remaining wild populations of ring-tailed lemurs.

Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions and the resultant acidification of surface ocean waters are predicted to have far-reaching consequences for biological processes in the marine environment. For example, because changes in pH and pCO 2 can alter sperm performance, ocean acidification may be accompanied by reductions in the success of fertilization in marine broadcast spawners. Several studies have attempted to determine the effects of elevated pCO 2 on marine invertebrate fertilization success, albeit with differing results. These conflicts may stem from the use of inappropriate sperm-egg contact times and, in several cases, the lack of measurements over a range of sperm concentrations extending from sperm-limited conditions to polyspermy scenarios. In our study, we used biologically realistic sperm-egg contact times and a full range of sperm concentrations to assess the effect of elevated pCO 2 on fertilization in the broadcast spawning sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. Fertilization experiments were carried out in seawater bubbled with CO 2 to 400 (control), 800, and 1800 ppm. Using a fertilization kinetics model, we estimate that elevated pCO 2 levels both increased sperm limitation and reduced the efficiency of fast blocks to polyspermy. Thus, elevated pCO 2 decreased the range of sperm concentrations over which high fertilization success was likely. Given the inherent difficulties in achieving high fertilization success in broadcast spawners, raised pCO 2 levels are likely to exacerbate low fertilization success in low-density populations or in areas with high water turbulence.

Marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems face increasing anthropogenic threats that are exacerbated by the ecological connectivity between realms; integrated land-sea management (ILSM) is a framework that can help address this connectivity. However, gaps in our knowledge regarding ILSM remain. This study reviewed 108 relevant studies to understand how ILSM is being utilized. Summarized are: (1) characteristics of integrated land-sea programs; (2) recommendations made from the literature for program planning, implementation and management; (3) how applied programs have been planned, implemented and managed; and (4) recommendations for undertaking ILSM. It was found that applied programs did not often adhere to the strategies recommended by theoretical papers. Applied programs were less likely than theoretical papers to specifically name the landsea connection, over 50% did not apply a framework or governance approach, many did not include key stakeholders, and over 80% listed at least one conflict or hurdle that decreased program success. This study highlighted the difficulties of undertaking ILSM given the high number of stakeholders, government agencies and experts involved. Based on the findings, recommendations for future ILSM programs are provided.