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Amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice modeling Alzheimer's disease display frequent occurrence of seizures peaking at an age when amyloid plaques start to form in the cortex and hippocampus. We tested the hypothesis that numerous reported interactions of amyloid-β with cell surface molecules result in altered excitation-inhibition balance in brain-wide neural networks, eventually leading to epileptogenesis. We examined electroencephalograms (EEGs) and auditory-evoked potentials (AEPs) in freely moving 4-month-old APPswe/PS1dE9 (APdE9) and wild-type (WT) control mice in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and thalamus during movement, quiet waking, non-rapid eye movement sleep, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Cortical EEG power was higher in APdE9 mice than in WT mice over a broad frequency range (5-100 Hz) and during all 4 behavioral states. Thalamic EEG power was also increased but in a narrower range (10-80 Hz). Furthermore, APdE9 mice displayed augmented cortical and thalamic AEPs. While power and theta-gamma modulation were preserved in the APdE9 hippocampus, REM sleep-related phase shift of theta-gamma modulation was altered. Our data suggest that at the early stage of amyloid pathology, cortical principal cells become hyperexcitable and via extensive cortico-thalamic connection drive thalamic cells. Minor hippocampal changes are most likely secondary to abnormal entorhinal input.

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Epileptic activity without visible convulsions is common in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and may contribute adversely to the disease progress and symptoms. Transgenic mice with amyloid plaque pathology also display epileptic seizures, but those are too infrequent to assess the effect of anti-epileptic treatments. Besides spontaneous seizures, these mice also display frequent epileptic spiking in epidural EEG recordings, and these have provided a means to test potential drug treatment to AD-related epilepsy. However, the origin of EEG spikes in transgenic AD model mice has remained elusive, which makes it difficult to relate electrophysiology with underlying pathology at the cellular and molecular level. Using multiple cortical and subcortical electrodes in freely moving APP/PS1 transgenic mice and their wild-type littermates, we identified several types of epileptic spikes among over 15 800 spikes visible with cortical screw electrodes based on their source localization. Cortical spikes associated with muscle twitches, cortico-hippocampal spikes, and spindle and fast-spindle associated spikes were present equally often in both APP/PS1 and wild-type mice, whereas pure cortical spikes were slightly more common in APP/PS1 mice. In contrast, spike-wave discharges, cortico-hippocampal spikes with after hyperpolarization and giant spikes were seen almost exclusively in APP/PS1 mice but only in a subset of them. Interestingly, different subtypes of spikes responded differently to anti-epileptic drugs ethosuximide and levetiracetam. From the translational point most relevant may be the giant spikes generated in the hippocampus that reached an amplitude up to ± 5 mV in the hippocampal channel. As in AD patients, they occurred exclusively during sleep. Further, we could demonstrate that a high number of giant spikes in APP/PS1 mice predicts seizures. These data show that by only adding a pair of hippocampal deep electrodes and EMG to routine cortical epidural screw electrodes and by taking into account underlying cortical oscillations, one can drastically refine the analysis of cortical spike data. This new approach provides a powerful tool to preclinical testing of potential new treatment options for AD related epilepsy.

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Huntington’s disease (HD) is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects the medium-size GABAergic neurons of striatum. The R6/2 mouse line is one of the most widely used animal models of HD. Previously the hallmarks of HD-related pathology have been detected in photoreceptors and interneurons of R6/2 mouse retina. Here we aimed to explore the survival of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and functional integrity of distinct retinal cell populations in R6/2 mice. The pattern electroretinography (PERG) signal was lost at the age of 8 weeks in R6/2 mice in contrast to the situation in wild-type (WT) littermates. This defect may be attributable to a major reduction in photopic ERG responses in R6/2 mice which was more evident in b- than a-wave amplitudes. At the age of 4 weeks R6/2 mice had predominantly the soluble form of mutant huntingtin protein (mHtt) in the RGC layer cells, whereas the aggregated form of mHtt was found in the majority of those cells from the 12-week-old R6/2 mice and onwards. Retinal astrocytes did not contain mHtt deposits. The total numbers of RGC layer cells, retinal astrocytes as well as optic nerve axons did not differ between 18-week-old R6/2 mice and their WT controls. Our data indicate that mHtt deposition does not cause RGC degeneration or retinal astrocyte loss in R6/2 mice even at a late stage of HD-related pathology. However, due to functional deficits in the rod- and cone-pathways, the R6/2 mice suffer progressive deficits in visual capabilities starting as early as 4 weeks; at 8 weeks there is severe impairment. This should be taken into account in any behavioral testing conducted in R6/2 mice.